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1. GENERAL PRESENTATION
• Countries affected: Mainly Tunisia, Niger and Mali, and Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal and Chad for some aspects of the project.
• Official partner: Ministère de l'Aménagement du Territoire et de l'Environnement (MATE) [French Ministry of Land Planning and the Environment (MLPE)]
• Area of the FGEF: Biodiversity
• Brief description of the project:
  
  

Species under severe threat.

Over the historical period the part of Africa surrounding the Sahara has lost more species of higher vertebrates, birds and large mammals than any other region in the vast Palaearctic zone formed by Eurasia and southern Africa (Corbett and Hill, 1986; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). Against this background of a recent loss of diversity, the rapid decline of populations of major species on the edge of the Sahara within a few decades gives particular cause for concern. Six antelopes are among the key components of a single common wildlife resource shared by the fifteen Saharan and Sahelian countries. Five of them, the Scimitar Oryx (Oryx dammah), the Addax (Addax nasomaculatus), the Dama Gazelle (Gazella dama), the Slender-horned Gazelle or Sand Gazelle (Gazella leptoceros) and Cuvier's Gazelle or the Atlas Mountain Gazelle (Gazella cuvieri) are under serious threat, and Oryx dammah, may indeed already be extinct in the wild; the sixth, the Dorcas Gazelle (Gazella dorcas), is in steep decline.

These antelopes have developed quite astonishing systems to adapt to their arid surroundings; some of them (the Addax and the Sand Gazelle) have even adapted to the extreme climatic conditions of the Saharan dunes.

Threatened by nature, but especially by man.

Groups of large herbivorous animals occupy an important position in the conservation of natural resources because of their role in maintaining the structure of vegetation. However, in the past few decades a series of severe droughts have hit the countries on the periphery of the Sahara (1913- 1914; 1940-1945; followed by more frequent droughts from 1968-1973, 1976-1980 and 1983-1984). The effect of these periods of draught on wildlife in arid regions has been aggravated by the fact that they were accompanied by anthropic factors. The droughts initially affected populations of Sahelian antelope which had already been gradually driven out of the most ecologically suitable regions and pushed by the pressure of human settlements into sub-desert regions where they were barely able to tolerate the dry conditions. The droughts then forced the surviving antelopes to move south into regions inhabited by livestock and arable farmers; in these areas the animals are at great risk of death at the hands of man. Finally, the decline in land available to wildlife as the result of drought and the increased accessibility of marginal land to domestic livestock have gradually eliminated any buffer zone, and consequently abolished any separation of wildlife from domestic livestock as wild animals are rapidly excluded from shared land.

However, the effects of drought seem to be subsiding in Sahelian countries as the last two rainy seasons (1998 and 1999) were particularly good and allowed a spectacular recovery in vegetation. This vegetation is now a highly favourable habitat for the recovery of Sahelo-Saharan antelope populations, particularly since the re-establishment of grazing land should relieve the past pressure from grazing on areas most suitable for wildlife; the farming advisory services in most countries are attempting to maintain this situation by setting up and supporting organisations to help pastoralists. The situation is different in the countries of the Maghreb: here, human population density is much higher, and this is reflected principally in sharp rises in the number of domestic livestock, leading to severe degradation of animal feed resources as a result of overgrazing. This makes it more difficult for vegetation to recover after periods of drought. In these countries, a ban on grazing seems the only immediate solution to preserve islands of vegetation which are a suitable habitat for wildlife. This option, chosen by Tunisia and Morocco, has produced good results on small areas of land; nuclei from which vegetation could spread once it has recovered.

Although the factors outlined above have helped speed up the disappearance or decline in Sahelo-Saharan antelope populations, hunting was undoubtedly the primary cause. The last half-century has been catastrophic for biodiversity in all Sahelian and Saharan countries: wars, tribal uprisings, exploration for oil and mineral resources, poaching and the general increase in availability of weapons and off-road vehicles have combined to almost completely eliminate large and medium-sized animals. The effect of hunting on antelopes varies from country to country. It is still a significant factor in all Sahelian countries, especially Mauritania where antelopes continue to be hunted relentlessly in spite of their scarcity. Pressure from hunting is less intense in the countries of the Maghreb, where long-term political stability means that weapons are more difficult to obtain (although in Morocco local or foreign VIPs are able to flout the rules and continue to hunt). In all countries, dignitaries from the Gulf, who have officially come to hunt bustard, are responsible for sometimes significant takings of antelopes (hunting and capturing live animals). Hunting by local inhabitants could be reduced or even halted by stepping up surveillance, repression and public information campaigns. These measures would not be sufficient to counter the actions of visitors from the Arabian peninsula; only a political decision taken at the highest level would be effective.

Another important factor in the decline of the status of Sahelo-Saharan antelope populations is the lack of manpower and equipment granted to wildlife management services. In almost all the countries covered by this project, the staff appointed to manage wildlife are insufficient in number, under-equipped, poorly trained and receive little government support. The justified lack of motivation resulting from this situation could be reversed if all states were to define and implement a clear wildlife protection policy. The process has begun in all countries apart from Chad. It appears to be progressing well in Tunisia and Morocco. Involving local populations in wildlife management, a principle enshrined in most of the laws, could also improve the situation by spreading the effects of the work done by the officers of the wildlife management services.

The primary sector is still dominant, but the tertiary sector is expanding.

Most of the countries involved in the project are mainly rural societies where farming makes up a major part of the national economy. For example, it is estimated that 40% of the Moroccan population makes its living from agriculture, and that the rural sector accounted for 20% of Mauritanian GDP between 91 and 96. Livestock rearing is a popular choice for rural people, especially on the edges of the Sahara; it makes up 75% of agricultural GDP in Mauritania and 18% of the entire GDP of Chad. Most of the livestock farming activity consists of nomadic grazing flocks; in Chad, for example, more than 75% of livestock farmers practice the ancient tradition of moving their animals between different grazing lands at different times of the year. However, farming is becoming a more sedentary occupation in most countries; this is partly the result of national policy and partly the realisation of farmers themselves after the severe droughts in the seventies that a sedentary life might be easier. For instance, 73.3% of the Mauritanian population still followed a nomadic lifestyle in 1977; by 1991, this figure had fallen to 11%. Nomadism is however still the most common form of livestock farming in the pre-Saharan zone, especially for Camelidae which are the only domestic animals that can tolerate these pastures lacking any surface water; small ruminants are also kept here on a smaller scale. The farming advisory services of most countries in the zone covered by the project have set up programmes to organise farmers practising nomadic grazing; the purpose of these programmes is to avoid mismanagement of the grazing lands and the subsequent destruction of these fragile ecosystems.

The tertiary sector, and tourism in particular, has been expanding in all these countries for the past few years. Three of the countries involved in the project already receive a large number of overseas tourists. Tunisia played host to 4.83 million tourists in 1991, while the figures for Morocco and Senegal stood at around 2.36 million and 0.37 million respectively. Tourism in Senegal is mainly resort-based, while visitors go to Morocco and Tunisia for beach holidays, to discover the culture and explore the Sahara; nevertheless, these tourists are a source of potential clients for ecotourism trips to the protected sites. Ecotourism is already starting to develop in Tunisia, where several agencies organise tours to the national parks which received 100,000 visitors in 1998. Mauritania and the three other countries which do not have an Atlantic coastline are developing tours in the Sahara. Mauritania welcomed around 9,000 tourists in 1999, all of whom came to experience "desert safaris" available from most of the 69 local travel agencies. In Niger, tourism has started to pick up again slowly after the Touareg rebellion; in 1999, which can be considered the first significant year for this industry, around 3,000 visitors landed at Agadez, an international airport with direct weekly charter flights from Europe between December and March. These tourists come to see the Aïr-Ténéré on trips organised by 5 or 6 European operators (French, German and Italian firms) and over 60 local travel agents which offer tours of 4 to 15 days. In Chad, despite the dangerous situation in the north of the country, an Italian tour operator arranges luxury trips to the Ennedi and Tibesti districts.

The network of protected zones is still insufficient and ineffective.

In theory, the seven countries concerned have established protected zones on their territory in areas suitable for Sahelo-Saharan antelopes, but the status of these protected zones varies considerably from one country to the next.

North of the Sahara, the reserves are small, with a basic level of staffing and facilities, and usually completely enclosed; these makes them relatively easy to patrol and control. South of the Sahara, they cover a much wider area, usually have no staff and facilities and are completely open; it is therefore difficult if not impossible to patrol and control these lands.

• Tunisia has already set up a large network of protected zones, and has also achieved highly significant results through the Sahelo-Saharan antelope recovery programme, launched around ten years ago with the help of the GTZ, the German Agency for Technical Cooperation. Good results have been achieved particularly in the Bou Hedma National Park, which is entirely enclosed, where Oryx dammah, Addax nasomaculatus and Gazella dama were reintroduced between 1986 and 1992 and where a residual population of Gazella dorcas has managed to establish itself. Grazing is not permitted in the park, and this has allowed an environment of steppe and savannah including Acacia raddiana to develop; a remarkable success making Bou Hedma the best example of this type of habitat on the northern fringes of the Sahara. The park is suitable for Oryx and Gazelle dama, while the Addax will eventually be moved south inside the Sahara to the Djebil park where a population of slender-horned gazelle still survives; the move will take place once the necessary fencing and acclimatisation pens have been built. In April 1999, ten oryx were imported from European zoos and resettled in the Sidi Toui park close to the Libyan border. Two other reserves, Oued Dekouk (Tataouine region) and Dghoumes (north-east of Chott el Djerid), will be able to take Sahelo-Saharan species; 3 oryx which passed through the Sidi Toui national park have already been settled in Oued Dekouk. The protected zones of the Tunisian Dorsale, such as the area in and around Chambi national park and Boukornine national park, close to Tunis, should help Cuvier's Gazelle to recover; at the end of 1999, 15 animals from Almeria (Spain) were reintroduced to Boukornine in an attempt to speed up recolonisation.
• Morocco has been making strenuous efforts to conserve and restore habitats; a Sahelo-Saharan antelope recovery programme similar to the Tunisian programme was launched in 1993, and is supported by the GTZ. 8 protected sites covering a total area of some 7,600 ha have been set up in the country's various biogeographical zones to protect these species; some of these parks already have a management plan. 29 oryx, 69 addax and 21 dama gazelles were reintroduced to the Souss Massa national park between 1994 and 1997; the current population of each species is estimated at 52, 140 and 35 animals respectively. Dama Gazelles have also been released in the R'mila Bour reserve, which is currently home to 40 animals. Dorcas Gazelles are living in the wild in the M'Sabih Talaa reserves, in the area which is to become the Bas Draa national park and in the royal hunting grounds of Agadir and Bouznika; this species has been reintroduced into the Souss Massa national park and the reserves of Bou Assila, Jbilet and the R'mila Bour royal reserve. Cuvier's gazelle can still be found in the Enjil reserve and the area which is to become the Bas Draa national park and has been reintroduced to the Toubkal national park. In view of the good results of programmes to reintroduce Sahelo-Saharan antelopes, the reserves now housing them could soon reach the limits of their capacity; surplus animals could then be released in the Bas Draa national park (200,000 ha) which is currently being set up on the north-west edge of the Sahara.
• There are now almost no Sahelo-Saharan antelopes living in the wild in Senegal. A reintroduction programme was launched in the early eighties. Seven dama gazelles from Almeria were brought to the Gueumbeul reserve in 1984; the population now numbers 38 head. Eight scimitar oryx were imported from Israel in July 1999; their number has since risen to nine and the group has also been placed temporarily in the Gueumbeul where Dorcas Gazelle are also set to be reintroduced. This old reserve needs improvement works to be carried out, particularly on the fencing; its objectives also need to be redefined within the context of a national Sahelo-Saharan antelope recovery plan.

The Ferlo Nord reserve has been designated to receive reintroduced species for a relatively short time in order to increase their chances of survival and prepare them for release into the wild. This reserve, taken over by the National Parks Service in 1997, has an integrated management plan; since December 1998 it has been undertaking work to identify sites for the acclimatisation pens, conducting public awareness programmes and organising the local populations. Pilot projects based on reforestation and exploitation of Acacia senegal and the jujube tree are under way. The National Parks Service has made the development of ecotourism in Ferlo one of its top priorities.

• There are still some natural populations of Sahelo-Saharan antelope in Mali; most of them are found outside the protected zones. The oryx disappeared in the early eighties, but the Dorcas Gazelle is in a relatively satisfactory state of conservation. Dama Gazelles are rarer, but are thought to survive in the east of the country. A population of addax, shared with Mauritania, is thought to be present in Majâbat el Koubra. Among the potential sites where Sahelo-Saharan antelope could be reintroduced, the Tamesna plain, located to the east of Adrar des Iforas, has the most to offer although it does not have classified status at the moment. Significant concentrations of Dorcas Gazelle are still to be found in this region, and recent reliable reports indicate that there is still a viable nucleus of Dama Gazelles. The quality of the habitat, the low human population density and the enthusiasm of central and regional government and of the local population should make it possible to reconstitute populations of Dorcas and Dama Gazelles, and eventually to reintroduce addax, oryx and possibly ostrich. The creation of a protected zone in the Tamesna district is therefore an absolute priority. Inspection flights should be carried out to clarify the status and distribution of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes in Majâbat el Koubra, in the Douentza and Ansongo-Ménaka reserves, and possibly in the Fariméké and Tombouctou regions as well.
• The situation of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes in Niger is worrying. Though Dorcas Gazelles are still present, Dama Gazelles are rare and the status of slender-horned gazelles is unknown. Some addax are thought to survive, mainly towards the Termit massif and between Termit and Ténéré. Oryx are now thought to be extinct, though a poacher recently report seeing four animals south-east of Agadez; this report, made at the beginning of 2000, remains to be verified. The Aïr-Ténéré nature reserve, which is a world heritage site and received support from the WWF and the IUCN from 1970 to 1992, is considered to be an important pilot site in conservation and development activities. The period of political instability triggered by the 1992 Touareg rebellion put paid to all the efforts that had been made to protect wildlife and led to a collapse in antelope and ostrich populations. The latest phase of the project launched in 1999 concentrates on rural development, sustainable use of natural resources and increasing the awareness of local populations of the need to maintain biological diversity. However, the remaining pool of wildlife and the good rains in recent years would allow populations of Sahelo-Saharan antelope to recover if they were effectively protected against large-scale poaching. The Termit massif region should be examined closely to ascertain the status of addax and oryx. Both this massif and Aïr-Ténéré are extremely important sites and the key areas for conservation of addax and Dama Gazelle and for the recovery of oryx. Finally, it might prove possible to use abandoned ranches like Ekrafane or Gadabedji as breeding centres for Sahelo-Saharan antelope, especially Gazella dama dama, a West African sub-species of which there are no captive herds.
• Sahelo-Saharan antelopes are still found in Chad, but not all species enjoy the same conservation status. Dorcas Gazelles still seem to be common, but Dama Gazelles are much rarer. Addax could have survived in the north of Ennedi, while oryx might still be present in Kanem and possibly BET. The Ouadi Rimé - Ouadi Achim reserve is a critical protected zone for the conservation of these species, not just for Chad but for the entire world. But though it still contains a large population of Dorcas Gazelles and perhaps some Dama Gazelles, the other species of Sahelo-Saharan antelope seem to have vanished, mainly because of poaching. This means that addax, oryx and Dama Gazelles cannot be reintroduced to this reserve until it has been brought up to standard and given effective means of protection.

Aerial censuses are needed to clarify the status of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes not only in the Ouadi Rimé - Ouadi Achim reserve and its surroundings (Djourab for oryx and possibly addax, and west of Kanem for oryx, Dama Gazelles and addax), but also in the Ennedi massif and the Mourdi depression (addax and Dorcas) and in the Tibesti massif (slender-horned gazelle) as soon as the political situation permits.

• In Mauritania, Sahelo-Saharan antelope populations that were already suffering as a result of unfavourable weather conditions have been further weakened by the spread of weapons used in the Western Sahara conflict in particular and by the popularity of hunting. The heavy rains of the past two years have allowed vegetation to recover, and some protected zones which used to be home to large populations of Sahelo-Saharan antelope can now offer a high-quality habitat. This is true of sites such as the El Aguer reserve, in the Affolé massif, which is scheduled for rehabilitation in the near future and is therefore a suitable site for reintroducing Dama Gazelles and oryx. The Banc d'Arguin National Park, which has a residual nucleus of Dorcas Gazelles, is considering a feasibility study with a view to reintroducing addax, oryx and Dama Gazelles. Detailed surveys need to be carried out in Majâbat el Koubra which is thought to contain the last large population of addax; surveys will also be needed in potential reintroduction sites such as Guelb er Richatt or the area set to become the Tilemsi reserve.

Complementary projects in the intervention zone.

Some projects have recently been launched or are at the planning stage in most of the countries involved in this project. The most important one are:

• In Morocco: The German Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ/KFW) has been supporting a 10-year project aimed at developing, protecting and rehabilitating natural environments inside and outside three national parks (Toubkal, Tazekka and Souss-Massa) since 1993. It also funds the construction of acclimatisation pens for Sahelo-Saharan antelopes that are about to be reintroduced. At the beginning of 2000, the Global Environment Facility (FEM/GEF) decided to contribute 10.5 million euros to a project costing 15.7 euros aimed at improving the conservation of ecosystems and species representing an important resource, helping to establish a system of protected areas and strengthening the work of institutions in relation to sustainable management and conservation.
• In Senegal: The Ferlo reserve has received no support since the end of the "Ferlo reserve integrated management" project funded by DANIDA (the Danish Agency for Development Assistance) from 1995 to 1998, which culminated in the publication of a management plan. However, the Ferlo Nord reserve, which should shortly be upgraded to the status of a Biosphere Reserve, is covered by a project which has a number of targets including reintroduction of Dama Gazelles and oryx. The National Parks Service is currently seeking funding for this project, which is costed at around 1.2 million euros. On the other hand, several rural development projects funded by the Senegalese provinces concerned were launched in the zone in 1993. These projects aim to improve animal feed sources among other things, and could therefore have a negative effect (making the farming population more sedentary, increasing the number of livestock and degrading natural resources); but the fact that they are linked into the overall management of the zone via the steering committee chaired by the National Parks Service means that they could also have a positive impact by adding a developmental facet to the conservation activities undertaken in the reserve.
• In Mali: The European Union is about to release funds for an environmental programme as part of the 8^th FED; this programme will include a project aimed at supporting the conservation of the Adrar-Tamesna ecosystems. 1 million euros could be spent on activities in this zone, and could include an inventory of the biodiversity potential, definition of the areas to be conserved and work to quantify the economic potential of the zone. An FSP project called: "Support for sustainable management of environments and resources" is in preparation. The sub-project called "support for management of sensitive zones" will be carried out in the Kidal region (in collaboration with the European Union) and will be funded to the tune of around 100,000 euros.

Other sponsors are already providing development aid funds in the Kidal region (Luxembourg and Norway are building water distribution systems), while the IFAD and possibly FSP are preparing to intervene. The World Bank and the GEF are funding the "Sustainable biodiversity management project in the Malian part of Gourma and Sahelian Burkina Faso". This cross-border project covers the Douentza "elephant reserve" in Mali and the Sahelian part of Burkina Faso where the last Dama and Dorcas Gazelles are thought to survive.

• In Niger: The GTZ has taken on a rural development project in the Agadez-Arlit region. The World Bank is considering funding a natural resources management project in the Termit massif. The European Union is funding a "grazing lands" project in the Gadabedji wildlife reserve. Swiss and Danish co-operation agencies are funding local development and community organisation projects in the national nature reserve of Aïr-Ténéré, via the IUCN. The Danish co-operation agency has also been funding a land planning project in the Zehner – Termit massif district for the past three years. The Italian co-operation agency is interested in ecotourism in Aïr-Ténéré.
• In Chad: An FSP project worth around 2.3 million euros called the "Safer Grazing Project", launched in April 2000, aims to provide across-the-board support to nomadic herdsmen, acting at institutional, economic, social and ecological levels. Its overall aim is to improve all factors affecting nomadic pasturage: the legal and regulatory framework, the socio-economic organisation of the farmers, management of natural resources, health care and technical support. More specifically, the project plans to improve the management of pastoral resources with a view to reducing conflict, preserving the environment and improving animal nutrition. The aims of this project, which covers nomadic pastoralists in the Ouadi Rimé Ouadi Achim reserve among others, are therefore fully compatible with (or even complementary to) the reintroduction of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes into this reserve, provided that the two operations are carried out on a co-ordinated basis.
• In Mauritania: The FSP is considering funding an integrated rural development project on the edge of the El Aguer reserve. This project, costed at around 765,000 euros and called "Rehabilitation of the El Aguer Reserve in the Hodh El Gharb region" has the following primary aims: restoration of the El Aguer reserve in order to combat desertification and preserve biological diversity, upgrading the tourism value of this national natural asset with a view to improving the region's prospects for socio-economic development, improving living conditions for the local populations concerned and nomadic pastoralists by providing better water supplies for people and animals and supplying social and cultural infrastructure. The GTZ is funding a support project for the Banc d'Arguin National Park which should be launched shortly and could include work to restore Sahelo-Saharan antelopes.

1. The work of the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)

The first phase of the project titled "Conservation and Restoration of Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes" has been carried out and received 275,000 euros in funding from the Convention on Migratory Species between 1996 and 1999. The project led to the creation of a regional action plan on the conservation and restoration of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes. This action plan was revised and adopted by the fourteen countries within the antelopes' distribution zone at a regional seminar held in Djerba (Tunisia) in February 1998.

The action plan presents the logical framework for priority activities to be undertaken; they are classified by species (6 species) and by State (14 States).

This project as submitted to the FGEF covers only seven of the fourteen countries concerned: Mali, Morocco, Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Chad and Tunisia. In the initial stages it is proposed that the FGEF and the French Ministry for Land Planning and the Environment (MLPE) should help fund national plans in three pilot countries: Tunisia, Niger and Mali, in the context of the approval phase of an FGEF strand. These countries have been selected on the basis of the following criteria: (i) credibility (the feasibility study can be completed quickly), (ii) geographical importance for protection of the species concerned, (iii) the technical benefits of the activities proposed (iv) that the countries are French-speaking.

The FGEF strand itself will consist of implementing the CMS action plan in three countries (Tunisia, Niger and Mali) on the basis of the schedules laid down in the context of the national plans and in accordance with the objectives listed in 1.4.3. This strand will also fund transversal inventory and training activities in Mauritania, Chad, Morocco and Senegal.

This FGEF will strive to ensure perfect synergy with the other projects that have already started or are scheduled in the 7 countries concerned. The sponsors active in these countries could intervene as co-funders of the FGEF project if it meets their objectives. This possibility will have to be confirmed during the final identification phase. Moreover, the FGEF strand will be implemented in conjunction with the teams responsible for drafting and for implementing the action plan in the other countries in the distribution zone.

Finally, the FGEF will receive regular updates on the progress of activities taking place in the 7 other countries of the distribution zone in the context of the global project implementing the CMS action plan on the restoration and conservation of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes.

2. Objectives of the project

The four main objectives of the project are:

1. to put in place the institutional, regulatory and human conditions that will permit the preservation and restoration of the key elements of Sahelo-Saharan biodiversity, especially the large ungulates: Oryx dammah, Addax nasomaculatus, Gazella dama, Gazella leptoceros, Gazella cuvieri and Gazella dorcas;
2. to ensure the conservation of residual natural habitats, or the rehabilitation of potential habitats in zones formerly occupied by these large ungulates as indicated by historical data;
3. to involve local communities directly in all the activities undertaken through the project and its initial results; in particular, to demonstrate to them that rehabilitation of wildlife will have a positive effect on their own development and socio-economic conditions and to show the advantages of restoring natural environments, combating desertification and degradation of arid lands by comparing the impact of wild ungulates on vegetation with that of domestic cattle;
4. to create the infrastructure needed to allow the development of ecotourism focusing on Sahelo-Saharan ecosystems and the species living in them, and eventually to allow rational and sustainable management and use of the reconstituted natural resources; this objective will initially be pursued principally in Tunisia.

The project is expected to achieve the following effects:

• Protected populations of each species of Sahelo-Saharan antelope will be introduced in habitats suited to each species that have historically been used by them; the populations will be drawn from different colonies found in European and North American zoos and will therefore present a diversified gene pool which will form the basis for gradual reintroduction into the entire distribution zone of the six species;
• Up-to-date information will be collected on the status of residual antelope populations, key elements in Sahelo-Saharan biodiversity, and on habitat zones suitable for the conservation or restoration of these species;
• A scientific and technical reference source work on Sahelo-Saharan antelopes and their habitats will be created: it will identify and clarify the benefits of the extraordinary physiological characteristics that have enabled these animals to adapt to the extreme conditions of their environment, determine demographic parameters, develop methods for tracking population dynamics or the balance between the size of the herd and the capacity of the environment in terms of the number of animals that it can support;
• A network of protected sites in suitable zones (including sites covering more than one country) will be set up and maintained to allow recolonisation or reintroduction – management plans will be drawn up for each of the protected zones in the network; a major feature of these plans will be the means of surveillance that will be used to control poaching effectively;
• Populations of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes will be conserved, strengthened or reintroduced, so that they can be used as a tourism resource in the medium term and a hunting resource in the long term;
• Sahelo-Saharan ecosystems will be restored, with a view to making local communities aware of the benefits of this activity by allowing them to compare the regeneration of natural habitats in zones where grazing is not permitted as opposed to the degradation of habitats in zones overgrazed by domestic cattle;
• Local populations will support the objectives of the project, as they will have been involved in its activities right from the start;
• Institutions, regulations and training programmes will gradually be set up to enable local populations to play an active part in the management of natural resources and to share in the benefits – better use of land and management of natural resources by local populations – and there will be a fall in conflict generated by the interface between human activities and protected zones, leading to a decline in human pressure on these zones;
• Private tour operators and local and national decision-makers will be made aware of the potential of the rehabilitated zones – following feasibility studies and market research, some of these groups may be involved in the development of ecotourism in some sites – with jobs and income being created for local populations;
• A network of local and/or regional facilities for restoring and monitoring diversity in arid environments will be set up;
• National and international funding will be sought to develop conservation of large ungulates and their habitats in the Sahelo-Saharan zone.

1. Content of the project:

For the reasons set out in paragraph 1.4.1., and particularly since it has made such good progress in restoring Sahelo-Saharan antelopes, most of the activities described below will be the focus of particular attention in Tunisia, which can be considered as the pilot country for this four-year project.

The project will consist of 8 technical elements and one co-ordination element. See tables 2 to 8 in the appendix for a breakdown of activities by country and by element. The list of elements is as follows:

1. Inventories of residual populations of the six large Sahelo-Saharan ungulates: land and air surveys to locate and assess residual populations of the six Sahelo-Saharan ungulates. This element will be carried out mainly in Tunisia, in the Djebil National Park, and in countries to the south of the Sahara where recent inventories need to be repeated before any actual restoration or conservation activity can be carried out: Mauritania (Majâbat el Koubra, Guelb er Richatt, Tilemsi reserve), Chad (Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim reserve, Djourab, Kanem and Ennedi, Mourdi and Tibesti if the political situation permits), Mali (Tamesna, Majâbat el Koubra, and later on the Douentza and d'Ansongo Ménaka reserves, the Tombouctou and Farimaké regions), Niger (Aïr-Ténéré, Termit massif). There will also be lower-priority activities in Tunisia (djebels south of Gafsa for Cuvier's Gazelle) and Morocco (Saharan zone and the border between Morocco and Algeria). Expected result: update on the conservation status of nuclei Sahelo-Saharan antelope populations.
2. Identification of favourable habitat zones: scientific assessment of residual habitat zones that are suitable for conservation or restoration of these ungulates surveyed during the identification operation, including analysis of data that can be used to clarify historical and current distributions; development of catalogues of techniques that can be used to rehabilitate habitats unique to each geographical region on the basis of historical data. This identification activity will make maximum use of existing data in all countries. Expected result: identification of sites suitable for possible recolonisation by antelopes or for reintroduction in the light of the priorities laid down in the CMS action plan.
3. Establishment of a network of protected zones and development of management plans: This network will include the enclosed protected zones in Tunisia, Morocco and Senegal which already have programmes for the reintroduction of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes, along with one pilot protected area per country. This element will also provide support for the improvement (or creation) of these pilot protected areas: the Djebil Saharan National Park in Tunisia, the area designated as the future Bas Draa National Park in Morocco, the El Aguer wildlife park in Mauritania, the area designated as the future Tamesna National Park in Mali, the Aïr-Ténéré national nature reserve in Niger, the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim reserve in Chad, the Ferlo Nord wildlife reserve in Senegal. This element will also allow the development of management plans for each of the protected zones in the network. Expected results: creation of a network of effective protective zones in areas suitable for recolonisation or reintroduction of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes; development of short- and medium-term regional programmes, which will include the creation of protected zones covering more than one country.
4. Reintroduction and reinforcement of populations: grazing will be banned on land located in the favourable zones identified by element 2, fenced acclimatisation areas and acclimatisation pens will be constructed, population nuclei will be reintroduced or residual populations will be reinforced in these favourable sites using animals taken from populations in Tunisia and Morocco or from zoos in Europe and North America; the results of reintroduction activities will be monitored. This element will be implemented only where action to increase numbers or reintroduce populations have been judged possible; given the duration of the project this will be mainly in Tunisia (Djebil National Park), Senegal (Ferlo Nord wildlife reserve) and possibly Morocco (area designated as the future Bas Draa National Park); however, feasibility studies examining sites for reintroduction infrastructure will be conducted in the other countries. A breeding centre for Gazella dama dama will be created in Niger on an abandoned ranch to establish a captive population of this sub-species from which animals can be reintroduced into Sahelian countries, and especially into neighbouring Mali. Expected results: populations of large Sahelo-Saharan ungulates will be re-established in their natural environment; a world pool of each of the species and/or sub-species will be created on the basis of animals taken from European and North American zoos or captured in the wild; this pool will be used as a source of animals for the restoration activities throughout the entire distribution area.

 

5. Involving local communities: public information campaigns will be designed and implemented to inform local communities of the importance of conserving and rehabilitating natural ecosystems and of the potential benefits to them both in terms of conserving natural resources (including grazing land) and generating new activities related to ecotourism in particular; work will be done to set up the legal, regulatory and institutional framework needed to allow populations to play an increasingly prominent part in activities carried out as part of the project (after consultation of the populations and analysis of the legal position); populations will be organised and trained so that they can participate in ecotourism, in monitoring protected areas and reintroduced antelopes; priority will be given to using local labour in constructing infrastructure, improving the environment and catching animals (Dama Gazelles); a pilot project will be conducted to test all these measures under real conditions; its title will be: "Involvement of populations in the management and rational exploitation of the Bou Hedma National Park (Tunisia)". Expected results: increased awareness of local communities of the importance of their natural heritage, better use of the environment and better management of natural resources, decline in human activity in and around the protected zones (overgrazing, poaching), involvement of local populations in the management of natural resources, improvement in their living conditions.
6. Training restoration operatives: people will be trained in the design and implementation of management plans for protected areas, captive breeding techniques and techniques employed in the reintroduction or reinforcement of wild species, in monitoring reintroduced populations and their habitats, in involving local populations and making the best use of natural resources; a specialised regional training centre will be set up in Tunisia to provide initial and ongoing training and to lead a network of trained individuals. Expected result: improvement of national and regional capacities.
7. Monitoring and scientific analyses: development and validation of direct or indicative methods of counting and monitoring the dynamics of reintroduced or residual Sahelo-Saharan antelope populations and of monitoring the equilibrium between the environment and the wild herd (number of animals that the environment can support); search for and analysis of factors limiting residual populations; creation of a reference population of Dama Gazelles in Tunisia allowing the project team to collect information on the species in the wild and to validate monitoring methods which, following adjustment, could be used in the other countries of the distribution area. Expected results: validated methods allowing data to be collected on residual populations of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes, the dynamics of reintroduced populations and adaptation of the animals' bodies to extreme climatic conditions; recommendations as to suitable methods or techniques which could be used to increase recruitment and reduce natural mortality; creation of a reference source on Dama Gazelles.
8. Preliminary work on developing ecotourism: feasibility study looking at the development of ecotourism centred on arid ecosystems and their fauna and flora in association with private tour operators (this activity will in the first instance be carried out only in the Sidi Toui, Dghoumes, Chambi and Bou Hedma National Parks in Tunisia, and may later be extended to protected areas in other countries such as the Souss Massa National Park and the M'Sabih Talaa and Jbilet reserves in Morocco or the El Aguer reserve in Mauritania during the course of the project if the benefits of these activities and the progress made on them justify such a decision); ecoguides will be trained to work in the Aïr Ténéré national nature reserve (Niger) and the Bou Hedma park (Tunisia); a pilot project will be conducted in the Bou Hedma National Park in Tunisia to test the idea of developing ecotourism under real conditions.

Expected results: creation of bases that can be used to develop ecotourism; development of a new source of economic activity; local investment in ecotourism.

9. Co-ordination/Evaluation of the project: national and international project officers will visit the seven countries once a year to co-ordinate the implementation of all the activities to be carried out under the project; complementary funding will be sought; national project officers will meet on a regular basis; a project liaison report will be published; activities will be evaluated and modified if necessary; an interface with activities carried out in the other countries of the distribution zone will be set up. Expected results: all the activities will be co-ordinated, strengthened and extended beyond their actual base.

1. Strand funded by the FGEF

The FGEF strand will help to fund the implementation of all the elements in three countries: Tunisia, Niger and Mali. It will also take charge of two transversal elements that involve most of the 7 countries. These transversal elements are: the inventories (Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad, Tunisia and possibly Morocco) and training of operatives (all countries).

The principal criteria used to select these three countries were:

• the time taken for the project to receive approval,
• the importance of the zones to antelopes,
• the possibility of organising activities involving two countries (Mali and Niger).

1. Partners in the project

• French partners: Ministère de l'Aménagement du territoire et de l’Environnement [Ministry of Land Planning and the Environment], Ministère des Affaires Etrangères [Ministry of Foreign Affairs], Office national de la chasse et de la faune sauvage (ONCFS) [National Hunting and Wildlife Agency], Muséum national d'histoire naturelle [National Natural History Museum];
• International partners: The International Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) (and in particular the Scientific Council's working group on Sahelo-Saharan antelopes which has carried out all the work on these species since 1996), the Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique [Belgian Royal Institute for Natural Sciences], the Ministère de l’environnement de la Région Flamande de Belgique [Ministry of the Environment of the Flemish Region of Belgium], the EAZA and the AZA (European and North American Zoological Associations) have already agreed to take part; the involvement of the World Bank, the European Union, the GTZ, the GEF, the Swiss, Danish and Italian development cooperation agencies, the IUCN and private American ranches (such as "The living desert") still needs to be confirmed during the approval phase.
• National partners: the Ministère de l’Agriculture de Tunisie/Direction des Forêts; le Ministère chargé des Eaux et Forêts du Maroc/Direction de la Conservation des Ressources Forestières; le Ministère du Développement Rural et de l’Environnement de Mauritanie/Direction de l'Environnement et de l'Aménagement Rural; le Ministère de l'Environnement et de la Protection de la Nature/ Direction des Parcs nationaux du Sénégal; le Ministère de l’Equipement, de l’Aménagement du Territoire, de l'Environnement et de l'Urbanisme du Mali/Direction Nationale de la Conservation de la Nature; le Ministère de l'Environnement et de la Lutte contre la Désertification du Niger /Direction de la Faune de la Pêche et de la Pisciculture; le Ministère de l’Environnement et de l’Eau du Tchad/Direction de la Protection de la Faune et des Parcs Nationaux. [Tunisian Ministry of Agriculture/Forestry Department; Moroccan Ministry of Water and Forests/Forest Resource Conservation Department; Mauritanian Ministry of Rural Development and the Environment/Environment and Rural Land Use Department; Senegalese Ministry of the Environment and Nature Conservation/National Parks Department; Mali Ministry of Amenities, Land Planning, the Environment and Town Planning/National Nature Conservation Department; Niger Ministry of Environment and Combating Desertification/Wildlife, Fishing and Fish Farming Department; Chad Ministry of the Environment and Water/Wildlife Protection and National Parks Department].
• Public and private bodies (to be confirmed): district of Tin Essako (Mali), local authorities of the Ferlo region (Senegal), provinces and rural districts affected by the future Bas Draa park (Morocco), tour operators (Tunisia, Niger and Mauritania).

1. Project duration and timetable

The project is a four-year programme aimed at implementing part of the CMS action plan (UNEP/CMS, 1999), and should lay the foundations for subsequent national projects throughout the entire Sahelo-Saharan zone. The FGEF strand is set to start at the end of the first half of 2001.

The following table outlines the planned timetable for the various elements of the project.

1. FGEF eligibility criteria
1. Impact of the project on the world environment

The Sahelo-Saharan regions are among those most at threat from desertification and land degradation in the world. They have also lost more biodiversity in large fauna of socio-economic and cultural significance than any other subtropical region. Their losses have been much more severe than those experienced in the desert and sub-desert regions of southern Africa, the two Americas and Australia (E.O. Wilson, 1988). The project aims to combat the degradation of these arid lands by conserving and restoring the key elements in the biodiversity of these regions. Moreover, it concerns high-profile species which have the potential to be extremely productive and occupy a vital place in the heritage of these regions.

It will lead to an overall strategy for the management of Sahelo-Saharan wildlife and habitats that will extend beyond the confines of the protected zones. All the species covered by the project are threatened with extinction at a global level. The problems associated with their conservation have proved particularly difficult and complex, as can be seen from the comprehensive documentation on the state of the populations, population trends, and measures taken to date; this data was collected during the first phase of the project and is summarised in the reports on the status of species and the action plan (CMS, 1999).

2. Impact of the project on development

Reinforcement of local powers is an essential element of the project, based on mobilising, training and the development of effective structures to take charge of biodiversity management. Activities will also be targeted at local populations, who will be made more aware of the problem, organised and trained so that they can prepare to take an active part in the management of natural resources. This activity will help to create a new field of economic activity concentrated on ecotourism and the use of natural resources and will provide jobs (as guides, guards, drivers, catering staff, craftsmen, labourers,…) and income for local populations.

Restoration of populations of large herbivores would significantly improve the use of arid Sahelo-Saharan environments, both in terms of grazing and tourism. Sahelo-Saharan antelopes are species which use pasture in a sustainable manner, which are remarkably well adapted to extreme environments which are not suitable for domestic animals, and which can achieve high breeding rates if they are protected. Moreover, these species and their desert or pre-desert habitats are extremely valuable for the development of ecotourism.

Southern and eastern Africa are excellent examples of how good management of large wild animals can lead to the development of tourism, which generates a significant flow of foreign currency. In some cases, a single species can serve as the basis for the organisation of lucrative tours by tour operators; for instance, gorillas in Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, sitatunga antelopes in Botswana and beisa oryx in Ethiopia. "Saharan" tourism is becoming increasingly fashionable and is a not inconsiderable source of income to the countries which practise it, particularly Tunisia and Niger. These two examples lead us to believe that the combination of these two factors, giving visitors the chance to see a unique animal in its original desert habitat, would attract large numbers of tourists to countries that have restored their wildlife, especially since these species cannot be seen in any of the countries currently offering safari trips to view wildlife. For the countries of the Maghreb this wildlife tourism, not feasible at the moment since the large fauna are almost completely extinct, would be a vital complement to resort holidays and the historical and archaeological tours they already offer (let us remember that Tunisia currently receives more than 4,000,000 tourists a year). Once Sahelian countries have restored the habitats and fauna in their national parks, these could eventually be promoted to attract tourists from all over the world. As the project stops short of restoring these large fauna, it can merely provide an impetus for the development of local ecotourism, involving populations in Tunisia and Niger in particular, and incite tour operators to assess and improve the potential of the protected zones, especially in Tunisia but possibly in Mauritania and Morocco as well.

The restoration of large fauna could eventually lead to other types of sustainable exploitation, though this is much further down the line. The example of southern Africa shows that extensive farms, with the addition of hunting and/or cropping, can be developed for some species which can be highly productive in marginal environments that are not suitable for domestic species. Hunting tourism could also be organised on the edges of the protected areas once animal populations have reached appropriate levels and if the wildlife authorities are in charge of measures to manage and control this activity.

The project will undertake sustainable development activities on the edges of protected areas or reintroduction sites, particularly in Mali, Morocco, Mauritania, Senegal and Chad. These activities will be targeted at improving the use of the rural environment, and will provide facilities for pastoralists as well as cultural and social infrastructure that will benefit the local populations and improve their living conditions. In addition, restoration of wildlife must involve restoration of its habitat and therefore of all the natural resources. These reconstituted natural resources will be available to local populations under the terms of contracts concluded between those responsible for managing the protected areas and populations in the peripheral zone through an organisation set up for this purpose.

These contracts will define how the local populations that are party to the contract will be involved in monitoring, managing and maintaining the resources, and where appropriate their role in the cultural and touristic exploitation of the protected area as well as the technical co-operation needed to ensure that the natural resources in the peripheral zone are put to best use.

3. Innovative aspects of the project:

By involving local communities in all the operational zones, the project aims to bring about a lasting change in the attitudes of these communities towards large fauna and their habitats, and to introduce an approach based on rational indirect or direct exploitation in place of the attitude of competition and overexploitation which will very soon lead to the disappearance of these natural resources which have an extraordinary economic and environmental potential.

The project will eventually lead to the creation of "new generation" protected areas in the following categories: nature reserve, multiple-use reserve and Biosphere reserve; these will not exclude local populations but will on the contrary involve them by contract in the management and appropriate use of the ecosystem constituted by the protected area and its periphery.

The project covers a large part of the distribution range of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes. The activities will be carried out in a co-ordinated manner, allowing for a global and homogeneous approach and a regular exchange of experience and information thanks to the creation of an operational network covering the protected areas concerned.

4. Demonstrative use and reproducibility

The FGEF strand will act as a catalyst for funding work on devising and implementing national projects in each of the 14 countries in the Sahelo-Saharan antelope distribution range. It will serve as a model for projects aimed at restoring large fauna in other regions where they have been decimated.

The project will be demonstrative in Tunisia and to a lesser extent in Niger and Mali, and more exploratory in the four other countries. However, reproducibility in the four other countries will require international funding (GEF, EU, bilateral), as the governments of these countries do not have sufficient resources to fund the protection of these globally significant species. The project will therefore attempt to raise awareness among international sponsors by arranging activities on the ground, sending them its recommendations and suggestions for projects in which they could intervene.

2. PROVISIONAL FUNDING requirement

It is estimated that the project will cost 3, 300,000 euros.

The project's technical advisor will be provided by the CMS and the WWF; a sum of 100,000 US dollars is already available for the first two years, and the parties to the Bonn Convention agreed to provide the same sum for the next two years at their last meeting.

The budget submitted includes part of the local input (expertise, operation of protected areas, investment) and contributions from outside sponsors. At present the figures set down for these contributions are only forecasts and are probably too low; they will have to be confirmed during the final approval phase.

The table below gives a breakdown of the budget for each element. The figures in brackets refer to the reference to the activity in question in the CMS/UNEP action plan (1999). The sums relating to the first part of the project (1997-1999), including the Djerba regional seminar in 1998, are not included in this table but are shown in paragraph 3.2.

 

Activity	Amount
1. Inventories: (2.2)	210,000 euros
2. Identification of favourable habitat zones: (1.1.3), (2.3.1), (2.3) 3. Establishment of a network of protected zones: (1. 2), (1. 3) 4. Reintroduction and reinforcement of populations:( 1.1.4); (1.1.5); (2.3.4); (2.3.5) 5. Involving local communities: (2.1.1), (2.1.2), (2.1.3), (2.1.4), (2.3.2) 6. Training operatives: (1.2.5), (1.3.5) 7. Monitoring and scientific analyses: (1.2.1), (1.2.5), (1.3.5) 8. Preliminary work on developing ecotourism  9. Co-ordination Miscellaneous and contingency reserve:	134,000 euros 880,000 euros 522,500 euros 499,500 euros 232,000 euros 187,000 euros 141,000 euros 324,000 euros 170,000 euros
Total:	3,300,000 euros

Table 1 in the appendix contains the overall funding requirement. Tables 2 to 8 in the same appendix contain the breakdown of the funding requirement by country and by activity.

2.2. Funding sought

The FGEF is being asked to provide 1,300,000 euros over a period of 4 years.
The breakdown of this budget by country would be as follows:

Country	Amount
Tunisia Niger Mali Transversal inventory element Transversal training element Co-ordination Miscellaneous and contingency reserve	343,000 euros 281,500 euros 161,000 euros 210,000 euros 166,500 euros 46,000 euros 92,000 euros
Total:	1,300,000 euros