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Report on the status and perspectives of a species :
This report is based on documents prepared for the Convention
on Migratory Species by Pierre Pfeffer (1993b, 1995) and on supporting documents
for the action plan on Sahelo-Saharan antelopes adopted by the 4th
Conference of the Parties of the Convention, documents that were prepared by
Roseline C. Beudels, Martine Bigan, Pierre Devillers and Pierre Pfeffer (1994).
The information it contains originates mainly from the general accounts and
regional action plans edited by Rod East (1988, 1990). It is completed by a new
review of the literature and a survey of actors in the field conducted in 1996
and 1997 by Tommy Smith (1998) with the support of Koen de Smet. Roseline C.
Beudels, Maurice Leponce, René-Marie Lafontaine, Marie-Odile Beudels, Tommy
Smith, Yves Laurent, and Chris Kerwijn have contributed to the preparation and
finalizing of this report. 1.1. Taxonomy. Gazella dama belongs to the Antilopini tribe (Antilopinae sub-family, Bovidae family) which comprises about twenty species in the genera Gazella, Antilope, Procapra, Antidorcas, Litocranius, Ammodorcas (O'Regan, 1984; Corbet and Hill, 1986; Groves, 1988). The genus Gazella comprises one extinct species, and from 10 to 15 surviving species, usually divided into three sub-genera, Nanger, Gazella and Trachelocele (O'Regan, 1984; Corbet and Hill, 1986; Groves, 1988). Gazella dama is one of three species forming the group of giant gazelles (Groves, 1988) of the sub-genus Nanger (O'Regan, 1984). The other two species, Gazella soemmerringi and Gazella granti, are linked to the semi-deserts, dry thickets, dry woodlands, steppes, and open savannas of the northeast and east of Sudanese Africa. Gazella dama is polytypic, comprising from three to nine recognized sub-species (Cano, 1984; Groves, 1988; Alados et al., 1988; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993; Cano et al., 1993; Kacem et al., 1994; Abaigar et al., 1997). The geographical variation appears clinal, with regions of gradient stiffening (Groves, 1988) ; the geographical variation is somewhat obscured by the individual variation (Brouin, 1950; Malbrant, 1952; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). Usually three sub-species are distinguished: Gazella dama mohrr in the Atlantic Sahara, Gazella dama dama in the western and central Sahel, and Gazella dama ruficollis in the eastern Sahel (Cano, 1984; Cano et al., 1993; Kacem et al., 1994; Abaigar et al., 1997). Uncertainty exists about the identity of the extinct Sahelian populations of Senegal, included in Gazella dama dama as of the work of Sclater and Thomas (1898), and still recently by Kacem et al. (1994), in Gazella dama mohrr by Cano (1984), Cano et al. (1993), and Abaigar et al. (1997). This uncertainty contributes to doubts about possible geographical isolation of the Atlantic form Gazella dama mohrr, morphologically the most distinct. Kacem et al. (1994) suppose a distribution hiatus between Gazella dama mohrr and Gazella dama dama in the south of Mauritania. This is not apparent on the map of distribution drawn by Trotignon (1975), but is confirmed, however, by an examination of the historical data he collected. In any event, possible future efforts to reintroduce, and even more to reinforce, populations must respect the geographical variation of the species as far as possible, even if its clinal character does not require differentiated treatment in favor of sub-species. The only probable exception is that of Gazella dama mohrr whose geographical isolation and coastal desert specialization are likely. 1.2. Nomenclature. 1.2.1. Scientific name. Gazella dama (Pallas, 1766). 1.2.2. Synonyms. Antilope dama, Cerophorus dama, Cemas dama, Antilope nanguer, Gazella nanguer, Antilope mhorr, Nanger mhorr, Gazella mhorr, Gazella mohr, Antilope mhoks, Antilope dama, var. occidentalis, Antilope ruficollis, Gazella ruficollis, Antilope addra, Antilope dama, var. orientalis 1.2.3. Common names. French: Gazelle dama, Biche-Robert, Mohrr, Gazelle mhorr,
Mohor, Gazelle mohor, Nanguer (Buffon), Ména, Grande gazelle 2. Biological data 2.1. Distribution. 2.1.1. Historical distribution. The range of the Dama Gazelle resembles that of the Scimitar-horned Oryx (Oryx dammah), with which it largely shares ecological requirements, with however a slightly bigger tolerance for desert zones (Dupuy, 1967) and rocky environments. The zone of historical distribution consequently comprises more or less the same Sahelian and Atlantic sections, but extends to the central Saharan massifs. On the other hand, it seems never to have included a Mediterraneo-Saharan sector (Sclater and Thomas, 1898; Lavauden, 1920; Heim de Balsac, 1931; Dupuy, 1967; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991; Loggers et al., 1992), nor any extension in the oases of the Libyan Desert of middle Egypt (Osborn and Helmy, 1980); the observation of Antilope dama by Schweinfurth in Dakhla clearly refers to the oryx, not to the gazelle (Osborn and Helmy, 1980). The main, Sahelian, range of distribution of Gazella dama coincides, like that of Oryx dammah, with the semi-desert Sahelian steppe band of White (1983), forming his unit 54a in region XVI, largely corresponding to that of the sub-Saharan Aristida steppes of Rattray (1960), comprising his units A11, A13, A15, the sub-desert steppes of Newby (1974), and the Saharan savannas of Schulz (1988) and of Ozenda (1991). They extend across the center-south of Mauritania between 18° (locally 20°) and 16° latitude north, the center of Mali between 18° and 15°, of Niger between 17° and 15°, of Chad between 17° and 14°, and of Sudan between 17° and 12° 30' (Lhote, 1946; Malbrant and Maclatchy, 1949; Brouin, 1950; Audas, 1951; Malbrant, 1952; Dekeyser, 1955; Cornet d'Elzius and Gillet, 1964; Newby, 1974; Lamprey, 1975; Schnell, 1976; Wilson, 1978, 1980; Monod, 1986; Grettenberger and Newby, 1986, 1990; Hillman and Fryxell, 1988; Sournia and Verschuren, 1990; Heringa, 1990; Thomassey and Newby, 1990; Millington et al., 1991; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993; Kacem et al., 1994; Hashim, 1996). Towards the south, the distribution of the Dama Gazelle advanced widely in the southern Sahelian band of deciduous shrubs or thickets (White, 1983, region XVI, unit 43) in Senegal (Sournia and Dupuy, 1990), in Burkina Faso (Heringa et al., 1990), in Mauritania (Trotignon, 1975), in Mali (Lhote, 1946), in Niger (Lhote, 1946), in Chad (Malbrant, 1952; Newby, 1974), in Sudan (Audas, 1951), and in Nigeria (Anadu and Green, 1990). The Sahelian range of distribution included the southern Saharan massifs of the Adrar des Iforas in Mali, the Aïr in Niger, the Ennedi in Chad, and the Darfur in Sudan (Lhote, 1946; Brouin, 1950; Chopard and Villiers, 1950; Malbrant, 1952; Newby, 1974; Lamprey, 1975; Wilson, 1980; Monod, 1986; Grettenberger and Newby, 1986; Kacem et al., 1994). Contrary to the Oryx, the Dama Gazelle was able to survive until the recent past in the insular central Saharan massifs (Heim de Balsac and Mayaud, 1962; Simon, 1965; Ozenda, 1991) which shelter, by means of the humidity gradients, in particular in the valleys, Aristida sub-desert steppes, as defined by Rattray (1960), and multiple ligneous formations (Schnell, 1977; Ozenda, 1991), and reproduce conditions locally which are somewhat similar to those of the Sahelian sub-desert fringe. Its presence is well documented in the vast mountainous group formed by the Hoggar and the Tassili des Ajjers in Algeria (Regnier, 1960; Dupuy, 1967; De Smet, 1989; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991), mainly in the south of the complex (Dupuy, 1967). It was noted several times in the western piedmont of the Tibesti, but was perhaps rarer there than in the Algerian massifs (Dalloni, 1936; Malbrant, 1952). The range of distribution of Gazella dama mohrr coincides more or less with the Atlantic Sahara, oceanic and sub-oceanic. It is a cold-current coastal desert and attenuated desert comprising a sublittoral zone, from 200 to 300 kilometers wide, where steppes and acacia woodlands abound, allowing the Sahelian flora and fauna to penetrate far north (Valverde, 1957; Monod, 1958; Rattray, 1960; Quézel, 1965; Schnell, 1977; White, 1983; Edmondson et al., 1988; Dakki and Parker, 1988; Ozenda, 1991). Numerous observations of the Dama Gazelle have been made in this very particular desert (Sclater and Thomas, 1898; Morales Agacino, 1950; Valverde, 1957; Trotignon, 1975; Loggers et al., 1992), in a band which extends from the Noun Wadi, in Morocco, to the north, to the Inchiri, in Mauritania, to the south, and almost never exceeds a width of 200 to 300 kilometers. Even though the map of distribution proposed by Trotignon (1975) for the species in Mauritania indicates a continuity between this Atlantic population and the Sahelian populations of south-east Mauritania, this is not supported by the historical observations he compiled and a cartographic examination indicates, on the contrary, a large gap between the two ranges of distribution. 2.1.2. Decline of the range. In the 1940’s the Dama Gazelle still seemed very common in the Sahelian part of its range of distribution, but already very rarefied in the Atlantic Sahara and in the central Saharan massifs (Lhote, 1946; Brouin, 1950; Dupuy, 1967). Yet at the end of the 1950’s, Valverde (1957) noted a sharp increase in the Spanish Sahara, after almost extinction, because of effective protection against poaching. He observed a density close to 150 animals per 100 kilometers of road. However, shortly afterwards, the species practically disappeared from the region, Loggers et al. (1992) only collecting one observation for the period 1960-1970, and one other for the period after 1980. There is therefore a risk that Gazella dama mohrr is extinct in the wild. In the complex of the Hoggar and the Tassili des Ajjers, the last data gathered by Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) date from the 1960’s and the species is also generally considered extinct there (Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). With regard to the Sahelian populations, a significant regression was observed in the 1960’s and 1970’s with probable extinction in Mauritania (Trotignon, 1975; Verschuren, 1984) and in Senegal (Sournia and Dupuy, 1990). In the early 1980’s, relatively large populations were surviving in Mali, Niger, and Chad, and perhaps in very small numbers in Sudan (Newby, 1982). In the beginning of the 1990’s they had been reduced to dispersed, relic and declining populations, in Mali (Heringa, 1990) and in neighboring Burkina Faso (Heringa et al., 1990), in Niger (Grettenberger and Newby, 1990; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993), and in Chad (Thomassey and Newby, 1990). 2.1.3. Residual distribution. Populations of the Dama Gazelle survive in the Sahel, at least in Mali, Niger, and Chad, and perhaps also in Burkina Faso, Sudan, and in eastern Mauritania. In Mali they are probably several hundreds of individuals strong and slightly increasing (Duvall et al., 1997). In Niger, where the zone of the Aïr-Ténéré and the Termit constitutes one of the last bastions of the species, Dragesco-Joffé (1993) evaluated the population at 400 animals. In Chad the species is currently very rare in the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Reserve (Moksia and Reouyo, 1996). It is possible that Gazella dama mohrr survives in some isolated pockets in its historical area of distribution. Cuzin (1996) notes observations by nomads in the Drâa basin in 1993 and in the Adrar Souttouf, situated between 21° 30' and 23° N at about a hundred kilometers from the coast, until at least 1994. 2.1.4. Recolonization prospects. The survival of several Sahelian cores makes recolonization of the whole of the Sahelian range possible, inasfar as an adequate network of protected areas can be put into place. To be usable by the species, these areas must benefit from a sufficient degree of protection against poaching and takings, but also be the subject of environmental rehabilitation, particularly of the woodlands of acacia and other ligneous species on which the Dama Gazelle seems to depend. The central Saharan massifs could eventually be reoccupied from Sahelian sources if these core populations were able to rebuild and regain sufficient vigor. The Hoggar and the Tassili des Ajjers were certainly in communication with the Adrar des Iforas and the Aïr (Lhote, 1946; Dupuy, 1957). However, it is probable, given the inevitable ecological insularisation of protected areas, whether they be Sahelian or Saharan, that the zones where favorable conditions are recreated, but where the species is no longer present, will repopulate naturally only with great difficulty. With regard to Gazella dama mohrr, extinct or on the edge of extinction in the wild, the best possibility of redeployment appears, as for the Oryx, to be in the region of Dakhla-Adrar Souttouf. More to the south, the species was still recently observed in the continental part of the Banc d'Arguin National Park or on its confines. The recent presence of the species at the northern limits of its historical range, in the Drâa basin, offers another possibility. A certain number of protected areas, existing or potential, in which restoration of the Dama Gazelle populations could be envisaged, by means of protection, management, and, if necessary, restoration of the habitat, or, in case of current absence, reintroduction of the species, are listed in Table 1. Their choice takes into account the possibility of simultaneous use for Oryx dammah. Table 1. Zones of particular interest for the restoration of Gazella dama populations.
2.2. Habitat. Characteristically, the Dama Gazelle has a mixed grazing diet of graminaceous plants or non-graminid herbaceous ones, as well as the foliage of ligneous species which play a particularly important role in its ecological requirements (Newby, 1974). It prefers browsing the foliage from the following trees and shrubs in the Sahelian region: Acacia senegal, Acacia raddiana, Acacia erhenbergiana, Maerua crassifolia, Capparis decidua, Capparis corymbosa, Cadaba farinosa, Boscia senegalensis, Guiera senegalensis, Grewia villosa, Grewia tenax, Balanites aegyptiaca, Chrozophora senegalensis, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, and Commiphora quadricenta. The grasses, frutescents, and graminaceous plants it grazes on include Limeum viscosum, Monsonia senegalensis, Boerhavia repens, Cucumis melo, Tephrosia lupinifolia, Tephrosia obcordata, Indigofera aspera, Tribulus terrester, Tribulus ochroleucus, Borreria radiata, Blepharis linariifolia, Commelina forskalai, Eleusine flagellifera, Cyperus gemenicus, Aristida mutabilis, Aristida pallida, Schmidtia pappophoroides, and Panicum turgidum, (Brouin, 1950; Malbrant, 1952; Newby, 1974; Grettenberger and Newby, 1986; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). The gazelle also consumes the pods and flowers of Acacia spp. (Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). Its water needs are met in part, as for many other Sahelo-Saharan species, by the wild pumpkin, Colocynthis vulgaris (Citrullus colocynthis) (Newby, 1974; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). The presence and density of trees appear to condition the distribution of the Dama Gazelle (Grettenberger and Newby, 1986). Its close connection with acacia woodlands and their accompanying flora has been noted by numerous observers in various parts of the range (Sclater and Thomas, 1898; Lhote, 1946; Brouin, 1950; Morales Agacino, 1950; Malbrant, 1952; Valverde, 1957; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993; Kacem et al., 1994). In Niger, Grettenberger and Newby (1986) documented its strong preference for the major wadis and their flood plain, secondarily for the steppes of flow zones and the dunes invading the wadi beds, environments in which trees remain in better condition during the dry season and bring shade and fodder in the hot season. In the same way, in the Atlantic Sahara, Gazella dama mohrr mainly occupied the sown wadis of acacia thickets of variable density (Morales Agacino, 1950; Valverde, 1957). There they ate the leaves of Acacia seyal with a complement of leaves from Maerua, Calotropis, Balanites, Salvadora, Leptadenia, and Ziziphus. 2.3. Evolution and evaluation of populations. The populations have experienced a catastrophic decline accompanied by extinction of local populations, perhaps including the extinction of an isolated form, Gazella dama mohrr (including Gazella dama lazanoi). The most recent population estimate, relating to the end of the 1980’s and the beginning of the 1990’s, is of less than 1500 individuals for the entire range of distribution, of which 400 in Niger (Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). The fragmentary indications available for later years suggest even lower figures (Pfeffer, 1993a, 1993b, 1995; Beudels et al., 1994; Moksia and Reouyo, 1996). 2.4. Migration. The Dama Gazelle undertakes movements of medium amplitude according to the availability of pasture. The cycle of these migrations, during which it could form herds of 100 or 200 heads, sometimes up to 600 (Brouin, 1950), is, in the Sahel, similar to that of the Scimitar-horned Oryx (Brouin, 1950; Malbrant, 1952; Newby, 1974; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). The stay in the south of the range seems, however, longer than for this last (Newby, 1974). In Chad, Newby (1974) observed a retreat towards the south as of January and February, an increasing concentration in the large wadis during the hot season, from March to May, a new progression towards the south, as for the Oryx, at the time of the first rains, at the end of May or the beginning of June, and migration towards the north in June and July. The cyclic, seasonal, or interannual migrations of the Dama Gazelle have or had a cross-border character between Mauritania, the former Spanish Morocco, and Algeria (Valverde, 1957; Trotignon, 1975; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991), between Mauritania and Mali (Trotignon, 1975), between Mali and Niger (Lhote, 1946), between Mali and Algeria (Lhote, 1946; Dupuy, 1967; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991), between Niger and Algeria (Lhote, 1946), between Mali and Burkina Faso (Heringa, 1990; Heringa et al., 1990), between Niger and Chad (Dragesco-Joffé, 1993), and between Chad and Sudan (Wilson, 1980). 3. Conservation status, by country Morocco (including ex-Spanish Sahara): extinct or on the edge of extinction The largest part of the historical range of distribution of Gazella dama mohrr consists of an oceanic and sub-oceanic desert band about 200 kilometers wide extending from the Noun Wadi to the southern border of the former Spanish Sahara (Sclater and Thomas, 1898; Morales Agacino, 1950; Valverde, 1957; Trotignon, 1975; Loggers et al., 1992). Some observations exist outside of the Atlantic Sahara as such, in the Mediterraneo-Saharan zone which is next to it towards the north, and the adjacent Sahara, in the Drâa basin, to the northwest until the region of Zagora (Loggers et al., 1992). The species was already extremely rare in the 1940’s (Valverde, 1957; Dupuy, 1967), then restored itself locally in the 1950’s (Valverde, 1957) before the figures collapsed. Only one observation exists for the period 1960-1970, and one other for the period after 1980, both in the Drâa basin (Loggers et al., 1992), so that the extinction of the Moroccan population is feared and consequently that of Gazella dama mohrr. It is possible, however, that it survives in very small numbers in the Drâa basin and in the Adrar Souttouf (Cuzin, 1996). Algeria: extinct or on the edge of extinction Gazella dama mohrr frequented, perhaps irregularly, the Tindouf hamada and the Drâa hamada in the extreme west of the country (Dupuy, 1967; De Smet, 1989; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991). The last observations go back to the 1940’s and 1950’s. In addition, an area of regular presence of Gazella dama dama existed in the Hoggar massif and its surroundings (Dupuy, 1967; De Smet, 1989; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991). This population was probably in contact with that of the Adrar des Iforas in Mali and perhaps those of the Aïr in Niger (Lhote, 1946; Dupuy, 1967). The last data recorded by Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska (1991) for the complex of the Hoggar and the Tassili des Ajjers go back to the 1960’s and the species was generally considered extinct there (De Smet, 1989; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993), but Bousquet (1992) and De Smet and Mallon (1997) suggest possible survival. Libya: extinct The Dama Gazelle was present in the first half of the 20th century in the periphery of the Tibesti in Chad (Dalloni, 1936; Malbrant, 1952), and Hufnagl (1972) suggests that it reached the south of Libya. Essghaier (1980) notes that there are no recent data for the country. Mauritania: probably extinct Northwestern Mauritania is part of the Atlantic Saharan range of Gazella dama mohrr, while the southeast is part of the Sahelian range of Gazella dama dama. These ranges were perhaps in contact but the data gathered by Trotignon (1975) indicate a gap. In the Atlantic zone, the data are limited to the immediate surroundings of the eastern border of the former Spanish Sahara, especially in the region of Bir Moghreim (Fort Trinquet) at 25° 30', and to a coastal band about 200 kilometers wide extending from the southern border of the former Spanish Sahara to the Inchiri in the south. The gazelle was noted particularly in the Taziezet, the region of Chami, the Tijirit, and the Inchiri. The last observations there go back to 1967-1968 (Trotignon, 1975). In the eastern Sahelian range, the species was distributed in the 1930’s until the 1960’s as far as the Adafer, the region of Tidjika, the Tagant, the Aoukar, and the region of Kiffa. It was more common in the southeast, in the Semi-Aklé, the region of Oualata, the Achemine, the Irrigi, the region of Néma, and the region of Bassikounou (Trotignon, 1975). The last observations cited by Trotignon (1975) are in the extreme east and date from the middle of the 1960’s. The Dama Gazelle could have persisted there slightly late, until about 1980, particularly in the Akle Aouana, near the Malian border (Sournia and Verschuren, 1990). Mali: endangered The Sahelian range of distribution of the Dama Gazelle crosses Mali from the Irrigi in the west to Azouak in the east, between 18° and 15° latitude, with an extension as far as 20°, and to the Algerian border in the periphery of the pene-Sahelian massif of the Adrar des Iforas (Lhote, 1946; Dupuy, 1967; Trotignon, 1975; Sayer, 1977; Newby, 1988; Heringa, 1990; Sidiyene and Trainer, 1990). Lhote (1946) notes its presence in the entire Sahelian steppe zone, including in the loop of the Niger river, in particular, in the region of Hombori, in the immediate vicinity of the current Elephant Reserve and at the latitude of the Ansongo-Menaka Reserve. The species survived, at the end of the 1970’s and in the beginning of the 1980’s, in the southern Sahelian regions of Gourma and Ansongo, to the west of the Adrar des Iforas in the region of Araouane and near the Mauritanian border (Heringa, 1990), as well as perhaps in the Azaouak at the border with Niger (Grettenberger and Newby, 1990; Millington et al., 1991). The figures were estimated at more than one thousand in the beginning of the 1980’s, to much lower numbers, in decline, at the end of the 1980’s (Heringa, 1990). Duvall et al. (1997), however, estimate the current population to be several hundred strong and suggest a possible recent increase. Niger: endangered The Sahelian range of distribution of the Dama Gazelle crosses Niger from the Azaouak to the south of the Ténéré, between the 15th and 17th parallels (Lhote, 1946; Br ouin, 1950; Grettenberger and Newby, 1986, 1990; Millington et al., 1991; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993; Poilecot, 1996a, 1996b). In the 1940’s, the principal concentrations were noted south of the Aïr (Lhote, 1946; Brouin, 1950). Brouin (1950) qualified the region of the Tadéras, between 15° 30' and 16° 30' latitude, and between 6° 30' and 9° longitude, as "very wooded" and the preferred habitat of Gazella dama. The range has (shrinked) contracted considerably, and, in the 1980’s, residual populations occupied only one fragmented area, around the Aïr and the Termit on one hand, around the Azaouak on the other hand (Grettenberger and Newby, 1990; Millington et al., 1991). The population in Niger was estimated at less than 1000 individuals by Grettenberger and Newby (1990) and Millington et al. (1991) of which 150-250 were in the Aïr and 200-400 were in the Termit (Grettenberger and Newby, 1986, 1990; Millington et al., 1991). Dragesco-Joffé (1993) evaluates the population in Niger at only 400 animals. Chad: endangered The Dama Gazelle was distributed in Chad in the whole Sahelian belt, mainly between the 14th and 17th parallels, from the border with Niger in the west to the massifs of the Ouaddaï, the Kapka, the Ennedi, and the depression of the Mourdi along the eastern border (Malbrant, 1952; Newby, 1974; Thomassey and Newby, 1990). In the 1970’s and 1980’s, the species seems to have survived in its entire range, in reduced numbers however (Thomassey and Newby, 1990). The Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Reserve was one of the bastions of the species with a population estimated, in the middle of the 1970’s, at 10,000 to 12,000 individuals (Newby, 1974). Currently, the species has become very rare in the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Reserve (Pfeffer, 1993a, 1993b, 1995; Beudels et al., 1994; Tubiana, 1996a, 1996b; Moksia and Reouyo, 1996) and throughout the Chadian Sahel. Sudan: extinct or on the edge of extinction The Dama Gazelle was distributed at the beginning of this century in the entire Sahelian zone and the sub-desert valleys of the Darfur, the Kordofan, and south of the Northern Province, between 13° and 20° latitude north (Sclater and Thomas, 1898; Audas, 1951; Wilson, 1980; Hillman and Fryxell, 1988). In the 1940’s, it survived in all the regions where the Oryx was, north of 13° north, especially in the eastern Kordofan (Audas, 1951). In the 1960’s and 1970’s, small, very mobile groups of Dama Gazelles persisted in a large part of the north of the Darfur, from the Chadian border to the edge of the Kordofan, particularly in the region of the Wadi Howar at 16° 30' and more south, towards 15° (Wilson, 1980). The last precise observations date from the years 1975-1977. Two animals killed in January 1989 between Omdurman and the western Darfur by Middle Eastern hunting tourism are noted by Cloudsley-Thompson (1992). Today, the species is considered in danger of extinction if not extinct in the country, but precise information on its possible survival is lacking (Hillman and Fryxell, 1988; Hashim, 1996). Senegal: extinct The Dama Gazelle has been known since at least the 18th century in the Sahelian zone of Senegal (Sclater and Thomas, 1898). Sournia and Dupuy (1990) suppose, however, that it was only a dry season visitor. It seems to have been especially frequent in the zone of the Ferlo at the time of the Sahelian droughts of the 1970’s (Sournia and Dupuy, 1990). There are no more recent data. Burkina Faso: extinct or on the edge of extinction The north of Burkina Faso, north of 14°, is in the southern Sahelian band of deciduous shrubs or thickets (White, 1983). The Dama Gazelle was still present recently, though in reduced numbers (Heringa et al., 1990). It could have survived in particular in the Seno-Mango area which is part in the Sahel Reserve (Heringa et al., 1990). Nigeria: probably extinct The extreme northeast of Nigeria, in the region of Lake Chad and the Jawa, is situated in the southern Sahelian band of deciduous shrubs or thickets (White, 1983; Anadu and Green, 1990). The Dama Gazelle was apparently rare there. There are no recent indications of presence (Anadu and Green, 1990). 4. Actual and potential threats Like that of the Scimitar-horned Oryx, the decline of the Dama Gazelle has happened under the combined effect of several factors acting simultaneously: the anthropogenic (human-generated) degradation of habitats, environmental stochasticity of arid surroundings, takings (human predation), and loss of habitat as a consequence of human pressure. These factors, which are still active today, do not differ in their overall description for the two species, whose principal ranges coincide. 4.1. Degradation and decline of habitats Catastrophic droughts. In the context of aridity which has prevailed in the Sahara for 3,000 to 4,000 years (Le Houérou, 1986; Newby, 1988), years of increased drought, especially affecting the Sahel, occur at more or less long intervals (Monod, 1986). During the 20th century, severe Sahelian droughts happened in 1913-1914 (Monod, 1986), in 1940-1945 (Monod, 1986; Newby, 1988), then, with a particularly high frequency, in 1968-1973, 1976-1980, and 1983-1984 (Monod, 1986; Newby, 1988; Hassaballa and Nimir, 1991). These periods of drought necessarily have a catastrophic effect on the fauna of arid regions. The damage caused by recent episodes to palaearctic migratory birds overwintering in the Sahel was abundantly documented and commented on. The effects of these natural catastrophes were deeply worsened by their occurrence in combination with human factors. They indeed hit populations of Sahelian antelopes which had already been pushed back by human pressure towards sub-desert zones at the limit of their tolerance for aridity. They forced them to regain more southern regions where the pressure from farmers and stock breeders is much stronger (Newby, 1988) and the risks of poaching much higher (Newby, 1982). Moreover, the level of human occupation of the land compromises the prospects for reconstitution of the vegetation after periods of drought (Millington et al., 1991). Degradation of pastures by over-grazing. The capacity of excellent areas for livestock-farming in the sub-desert steppe to bear an enormous primary production of graminaceous plants and other perennial plants, combined with relatively weak competition and predation, explain the past abundance of ungulates (Newby, 1974). Sharp increases in domestic livestock and the possibility created for this, thanks to deep well drilling, of permanently using pasture land located in regions without water, have led to the generalization of intense over-grazing (Newby and Sayer, 1976; Newby, 1978a; Newby, 1988). For all of the northwestern Saharan and sub-Saharan regions, Le Houérou (1986) considers the grazing pressure twice that of the carrying capacity, and notes among its effects the elimination of perennial graminaceous plants and edible under-shrubs, the trampling and compaction of the soil, and its stripping and the wind erosion which results. For the Sahel, Monod (1986) indicates pasture pressures from 0.8 to 1 equivalent-sheep per hectare, for a carrying capacity of 0.25 equivalent-sheep per hectare, i.e. a charge four times too high, leading to severe and generalized over-grazing. The effects of this overexploitation are well described for Sudan by Bari (1991), who documents the transformation of rich grazing land of short grass as well as rich annual pasture grounds into absolute deserts, and by Hassaballa and Nimir (1991), who note a progression of the desert at the rate of 5 to 6 kilometers per year. The destruction of pastures, especially of formations of Cornulaca, by grazing has also been observed in Chad (Newby, 1974). Felling of ligneous species. Ligneous species are essential for the Dama Gazelle, as much as or more than for the Oryx, both for the shade and the food. The Dama Gazelle is in fact a mixed user, more a foliage browser than a grazer on graminaceous plants. The systematic destruction of trees and shrubs in the Sahelo-Saharan space is a historical constant (Le Houérou, 1986). It has strongly increased recently in the southern fringe regions of the Sahara, under the combined effects of drought and needs for firewood and charcoal (Grettenberger and Newby, 1986; Newby, 1988; Bari, 1991; Hassaballa and Nimir, 1991; Millington et al., 1991). In Sudan, for example, Bari (1991) documents the total disappearance of Acacia tortilis, Acacia raddiana, Acacia senegal, and Merua crassifolia woodlands, and their replacement by absolute desert. 4.2. Direct exploitation. Traditional hunting. Traditional hunting, with dogs (Brouin, 1950; Newby, 1974; Grettenberger and Newby, 1986; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993), with or without traps, exercised by nomads in particular, certainly played a role in reducing the species, but especially as from the moment when it was done in conjunction with other factors and was exercised at the expense of ecologically weakened populations. Motorized hunting. Much more than forms of traditional hunting, it is the development of hunting using modern firearms and vehicules which was an essential proximal factor in the diminishment or local extinction of the species. It was mainly perpetrated by military, mining, oil, or administrative personnel, expatriate or African (Grettenberger and Newby, 1986; Hassaballa and Nimir, 1991; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). Hunting tourism. As for all the Sahelo-Saharan antelopes, the massacres perpetrated by hunting tourism, in particular Middle-Eastern, which is well documented especially for Sudan (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1992), Niger, and Mali (Newby, 1990; Bousquet, 1992), represent a major potential threat. 4.3. Other threats. All the indirect human pressures likely to affect the species, such as the extension of ovine and caprine livestock, the multiplication of wells, and the invasion of available habitats, are exerted through the deterioration or regression of habitats and the increase in susceptibility to poaching. They have been treated under these points. 5. Regulatory provisions 5.1. International. Bonn Convention: Annex I, resolution 3.2, paragraph 4. 5.2. National. The Dama Gazelle is completely protected in Mali, Senegal, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and partially in Sudan; completely protected for a renewable period in Niger. 6. Conservation measures, by country 6.1. Ban on takings. Morocco: protected 6.2. Habitat conservation. Morocco (including ex-Spanish Sahara) The proposed parks in the lower Drâa basin and in the Dakhla region (Müller, 1996) appear to be appropriate for the restoration or reintroduction of the species. However, in the case of Dakhla, it must sufficiently extend inside, in the region of the Adrar Souttouf, to include a substantial representation of steppes and woodlands of Sahelian physiognomy which characterized the range of distribution of Gazella dama mohrr (Valverde, 1957). In both situations, the possibility that the species still occurs in the wild has to be evaluated before any reintroduction project is undertaken. If this is the case, efforts to protect the species, accompanied by restoration of its habitat, must obviously be favored. Algeria The National Park of the Tassili des Ajjers and the Hoggar National Park offer, by their exceptional dimensions and their environmental diversity (Bousquet, 1992), unquestionable possibilities of redeployment of the Dama Gazelle. Here also, the possibility that the species still occurs in the wild must obviously be evaluated before launching any project of reintroduction. Mauritania Gazella dama mhorr was present until the end of the 1960’s in the Banc d'Arguin National Park. Mali The Elephant Reserve and the Ansongo-Menaka Reserve are situated in the zone of distribution of the Dama Gazelle (Lhote, 1946). In both reserves, populations of the species still occured recently, and perhaps still do (Heringa, 1990; Pavy, 1996). Unfortunately, they are under considerable agricultural, pastoral, residential, and hunting pressures (Heringa, 1990). Niger The Termit massif, which, at least recently, sheltered the largest populations of the Dama Gazelle, is one of the best preserved regions of the Sahel in Niger, with the environment in relatively good condition (Newby, 1982, 1988; Grettenberger and Newby, 1986, 1990; Millington et al., 1991). The national park planned there is essential for the species. The Aïr-Ténéré National Park also shelters substantial populations; the implementation of conservation measures runs up against difficult practical problems but its effective protection remains an essential element of a network of protected areas (Newby and Jones, 1986; Grettenberger and Newby, 1986, 1990; Millington et al., 1991). The Gadabedji Reserve, created for the protection of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes, mainly the Scimitar-horned Oryx, had Dama Gazelles at the time of its creation. Unfortunately, human pressures have never been sufficiently controlled there (Newby, 1982; 1988; Dixon and Newby, 1989; Grettenberger and Newby, 1990; Millington et al., 1991). It is a potential site of reintroduction if these pressures can be held in check and if the program of habitat rehabilitation which was undertaken in 1989 (Millington et al., 1991) is a success. Chad The Dama Gazelle survives in the Ouadi-Rimé-Ouadi Achim Reserve where its population in the middle of the 1970’s counted 10,000-12,000 individuals (Newby, 1974). However, its situation has sharply deteriorated since the end of the 1970’s (Thomassey and Newby, 1990; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993; Pfeffer, 1993a, 1995; Moksia and Reouyo, 1996). Sudan The proposal to create a national park in the Wadi Howar in the north of the Darfur could offer good possibilities of conservation or recolonisation of the Dama Gazelle (Hashim, 1996). Senegal The two reserves of the Ferlo (Bille et al., 1972; Bille and Poupon, 1972; Sournia and Dupuy, 1990) offer possibilities of recolonizing or reintroducing Sahelian antelopes. It is envisaged to designate them as national parks (Diop et al., 1996). A program to reintroduce the Dama Gazelle is projected (Sournia and Dupuy, 1990; Diop et al., 1996). Its success depends mainly, as for all the southern Sahelian localizations, on the possibility of limiting human pressures so as to ensure the protection of the animals and the rehabilitation of the vegetation (Diop et al., 1996). Burkina Faso Perhaps some Dama Gazelles survive in the partial fauna reserve of the Sahel, in particular in the area of the Seno-Mango. The reserve has suffered much from grazing, wood cutting, and drought (Heringa et al., 1990). 6.3. Attenuation of obstacles for migratory animals. The creation of a network of sufficiently close protected areas, numerous and large enough, and particularly of crossborder reserves, can, in the medium term, ensure adequate movement security for this relatively small and discreet species. Among the priorities would appear to be a reserve in Mali in the Adrar des Iforas, in relation with the parks in southern Algeria, and the rehabilitation of western Algerian acacia woodlands in the zone of possible population expansion of Gazella dama mohrr in the Drâa basin. 6.4. Regulations concerning other detrimental factors. These possible regulations only have meaning within a framework of management plans for protected areas. This point consequently merges with point 6.2. 6.5. Other measures. Tunisia Senegal A reintroduction program in the reserves of the Ferlo, including preliminary acclimatization in the Sahelian reserve of Gueumbeul, is underway (Sournia and Dupuy, 1990; Diop et al., 1996). Outside range of distribution The species is raised in captivity or semi-captivity in North Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and North America. They include specimens of Gazella dama mohrr, originating from the ex-Spanish Sahara then from the Almeria animal husbandry center. 7. Research activities 7.1. Public authorities. 7.2. N.G.O.s 8. Needs and recommended measures Recommended measures are the object of a plan of action developed parallel to this status report (Beudels et al., 1998). The principal needs that they meet are listed below. 8.1. Total protection of the species. Necessary in all the countries of the present and historical range so as to preserve the surviving populations and prepare for a possible redeployment. 8.2. Conservation measures. Establishment of a network of protected areas in all the parts of the historical range, with absolute priority to the areas where the species survives or could still survive in the wild. Adequate management of these areas to reestablish favorable ecological conditions. 8.3. Localization and monitoring of residual populations, and precision of their ecological requirements. Energetic search for possible residual populations of Gazella dama mohrr. 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Gazella dama