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Seminar on the Conservation and Restoration of Sahelo-Saharan Antelopes
Djerba, Tunisia, 19-23 February 1998. UNEP, Convention on Migratory Species

Report on the status and perspectives of a species :

      Addax nasomaculatus          

        Cover drawing : J. Smit, in Sclater and Thomas, 1899.
        Reproduction : M.O. Beudels.
        Report prepared by Roseline C. Beudels-Jamar, Pierre Devillers, and 
        René-Marie Lafontaine. Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique.
      
This report is based on documents prepared for the Convention on Migratory Species by Pierre Pfeffer (1993b, 1995) and on supporting documents for the action plan on Sahelo-Saharan antelopes adopted by the 4^th Conference of the Parties of the Convention, documents that were prepared by Roseline C. Beudels, Martine Bigan, Pierre Devillers and Pierre Pfeffer (1994). The information it contains originates mainly from the general accounts and regional action plans edited by Rod East (1988, 1990), and the fundamental work of Hubert Gillet (1965, 1969) and John E. Newby (1974, in particular). It is completed by a new review of the literature and a survey of actors in the field conducted in 1996 and 1997 by Tommy Smith (1998). René-Marie Lafontaine, Marie-Odile Beudels, Tommy Smith, and Chris Kerwijn have contributed to the preparation and finalizing of this report.

1. Taxonomy and nomenclature

1.1. Taxonomy.

Addax nasomaculatus belongs to the Hippotragini tribe, of the Hippotraginae sub-family within the Bovidae family, which comprises one extinct species, seven surviving species, and two evolutionary distinct subspecies in the genera Oryx, Addax and Hippotragus (Simpson, 1945; Murray, 1984; Corbet et Hill, 1986; Wacher, 1988). All the hippotraginids are adapted to the exploitation, generally at low density, of little productive and often difficult habitats (Kingdon, 1982; Murray, 1984; Wacher, 1988; Beudels, 1993). The genus Addax is comprised of a single species, adapted to the desert.

1.2. Nomenclature.

1.2.1. Scientific name.

Addax nasomaculatus (De Blainville, 1816)

1.2.2. Synonyms.

1.2.3. Common names.

French : Addax, Antilope addax, Antilope de Mendès
Arabic : Begaar el Ouach, Akash, Abu-Akach, Anjidohl, Auel, Bakra el onash, Tamita
English : Addax

2.1. Distribution.

2.1.1. Historical distribution.

The historical range of the Addax’s permanent or periodical distribution and migration corresponds to the whole of the desert and sub-desert region of North Africa between the Atlantic and the Nile. Inside this range, the distribution of the species is conditioned by that of large zones of ergs and sandy regs (Lhote, 1946; Schnell, 1977; Quézel, 1965; White, 1983; Walter and Breckle, 1986; Le Houérou, 1986; Grettenberger and Newby, 1990; Ozenda, 1991; Kacem et al., 1994), temporary pasture (Grettenberger and Newby, 1990; Dragesco Joffé, 1993), and ecotones between the desert and the sub-desert steppes (Gillet, 1969; Newby, 1974).

The Addax is a species of the true desert, adapted to very dispersed pasture ground (Heim de Balsac, 1936; Gillet, 1969; Newby, 1984; Grettenberger and Newby, 1990; Dragesco Joffé, 1993). The range of distribution seems to have been organized in a certain number of big groups between which exchanges were quite likely.

In the west, a large body of data demarcates the populations linked to the great Mauritania-Mali ergs of Majabat al Koubra and the ergs of Iguidi and Chech (Monod, 1958; Gillet, 1969; Trotignon, 1975; Walter and Breckle, 1986; Lamarche, 1987). It is probably these populations which occupied, with an unknown regularity, the Atlantic Sahara in the region of Dakhla (Morales Agacino, 1950; Valverde, 1957; Loggers et al., 1992) and gave way to observations east of Zagora in the region of the upper Drâa in Morroco (Marçais, 1937; Loggers et al., 1992).

More to the east, substantial zones of presence are centered on the Great Western Erg (Gillet, 1969; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991), the Great Eastern Erg (Lhote, 1946; Gillet, 1969; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991; Kacem et al., 1994), the large sandy zones (Walter and Breckle, 1986) of the Hamada de Tinrhert and south of the Hamada el Hamra (Lhote, 1946; Gillet, 1969; Hufnagl, 1972; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991), and in the entire piedmont of the Hoggar and the Tassili des Ajjers, in particular in the Admer Erg (Lhote, 1946; Gillet, 1969; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991). Beyond, in Libya, the data, relatively little in number and dispersed, suggest a possible presence in the Haruj al Aswald piedmont on the slope, in the region of Koufra, and in the vicinity of the Calanshio dunes (Hufnagl, 1972).In the Western Desert of middle Egypt, the Addax was known at big oases and depressions or in their peripheries, in particular at Siwa in the northwest, as well as at the Libyan oasis adjacent to Jaghbub, the depression of Qattara, of Faiyum, of Bahariya, of Farafara, of Dakhla, and at the Kharga complex (Osborne and Helmi, 1980). It was noted also in the extreme northeast of the Mediterranean coastal desert, in the Nubian desert southwest of Bir Kiseiba, and in the region of Jebel Uweinat.

In the transition zone between the desert and the Sahelian steppes, regions of significant presence of the Addax existed at least in the periphery of the Adrar des Iforas (Lhote, 1946), in the Ténéré, the piedmont of the Aïr, and the Termit massif (Lhote, 1946; Brouin, 1950; Grettenberger and Newby, 1990; Millington et al., 1991), in northern Chad south of the Tibesti (Gillet, 1969; Newby, 1974), in the Sudan-Chad regions of the depression of Mourdi and Wadi Howar (Gillet, 1969; Kock, 1970; Wilson, 1980), in the Nubian desert of the North province and north of Kordofan in Sudan (Kock, 1970).The southern limit of the range of principal distribution of the Addax descends to the center-north of Mauritania between 17° and 19° of northern latitude, to the center of Mali between 17° and 19°, to 16° in Niger, 15° in Chad, and to 14° of northern latitude in Sudan. This northern limit is situated in the semi-desert Sahelian steppe band of White (1983). As of the hot season, the Addax can migrate south in the Sahelian zone coming upon the first downpours and pasture. Existing data indicate that the historical distribution of the Addax was relatively continuous over the whole of the Sahelo-Saharan region.

2.1.2. Decline of the range.

Like that of the Oryx, the range of the Addax has regressed continuously since the drying up of the Sahara (Gillet, 1969). During the entire Neolithic Age, it was at least as abundant as the Oryx in all of Northern Africa (Gillet, 1969). Like the rest of Saharan fauna, the Addax suffered from the effects of aridification, but it found refuge on the periphery of the desert (Gillet, 1969). This was a very provisional refuge, since the Addax, like the rest of the big northern African fauna, underwent massive taking during the Roman era (Le Houérou, 1986; Newby, 1988).

The Addax was still spread throughout the Sahara around 1840 (Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). It had completely disappeared from North Africa by the end of the 19^th century (Newby, 1986; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991; Loggers et al., 1992). The decline accelerated as of the beginning of the 20^th century, and even more during the post-war period (Gillet, 1969). The rapid diminution of the Addax went hand-in-hand with colonization, the search for oil, and the militarization of the desert (Gillet, 1969; Dragesco Joffé, 1993). The increase in all-terrain vehicles allowed a much more efficient penetration into the most remote regions. The Addax is particularly sensitive to disturbance; it galops until exhaustion if chased (Dragesco Joffé, 1993). Narratives recount how entire herds were destroyed in a single hunt (Lhote, 1946; Gillet, 1969). The intense periods of drought and the desertification that they have generated these last decades (end of the 1970’s and early 1980’s) have certainly contributed to the general decline of the species (Newby, 1989).

The Addax was still recently largely widespread and even locally abundant in its center and towards the south (Newby, 1986). Like the Oryx, the decline of the Addax was spectacularly rapid everywhere. In one generation, the Addax lost 90% of its range of distribution (Newby, 1986).

Table 1. Current status and dates of probable extinction of the Addax in the countries within its range, according to Newby (1984) or other authors as indicated

2.1.3. Residual distribution.

The current range of the Addax is an altogether broken up area, consisting of three nuclei marking more or less the southern Sahara and sometimes penetrating to central Sahara (Gillet, 1969). These three residual islands are, from west to east:* one population of Addax lives in the eastern part of the Majabat al Koubra, between Mauritania and the center-west of Mali (the Djouf) (Lamarche, 1987; Dragesco Joffé, 1993) with key zones being, as cited by Lamarche (1987), the Aklé Awana, the Erigat of the west and the east of the Mreyyé. The population of the Majabat al Koubra probably numbers several hundred animals (B. Lamarche, April 1997).

* some small groups live in Niger, to the northeast of and in the Aïr-Ténéré National Nature Reserve (Newby, 1989), between this and the Termit massif, between the Termit and the Fachi oasis, and even further east, in the ergs of Bilma and of the Ténéré towards the Chadian border (Newby, 1989). The Termit massif, of a smaller surface area compared to the Aïr reserve, supports a higher density of Addax (Newby, 1989; Dragesco Joffé, 1993). Some individuals in the north of the Aïr or of the Djado can occasionally penetrate towards Algeria and perhaps even Libya.

* some groups also live in Chad, on a band going from the Niger-Chad border to the Mourdi and the Erdi depressions, to Djourba and the Sudanese border, between the 16^th and 19^th parallels (Newby, 1974; P. Pfeffer, 1993), in what was until recently one of the most important zones for the species (Newby, 1981, 1989), as well as in the north and west of the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Faunal Reserve, and perhaps also along the Wadi Howar and Wadi Naoué in the northern Darfur in Sudan (East, 1990; East, 1996).

2.1.4. Recolonization prospects.

Any prospect of recolonization of the Addax must necessarily integrate, on one hand, new attempts locally at conservation of the Addax and its habitat, and on the other hand, attempts at reintroduction or perhaps reinforcement of populations from individuals born in captivity, in parallel with measures of habitat management. In fact, the techniques of reintroducing animals born in captivity to the wild are relatively well mastered today for antelopes, and more than 800 individuals currently exist in a captive state.

The possibilities of recolonization are perhaps greater for the Addax than for the Oryx. The species is able to live in extreme habitats which man and his livestock cannot use, and it is characterized by a reproductive strategy permitting it to rapidly take advantage of favorable climatic conditions. The zone of potential distribution of the Addax is the desert and the sub-desert. Its distribution in the desert region doesn’t seem to have limits other than the periodic carrying capacity of temporary pasture whose apparition is linked to a pattern of erratic rain. It evolves in a zone which benefits from the extreme reach of tropical summer rains (in diminished form) and which is sporatically placed under the influence of winter Saharan depressions of Mediterranean origin that cross the Sahara in its southern part (Gillet, 1965). Towards the desert, the limit corresponds to the availability of feeding grounds lands. Towards the Sudanese regions, where the Addax descends in dry periods, the limit of its range which goes to the 15^th parallel in the dryest years (Gillet, 1965) is without a doubt set even more by the competition with other species, domestic livestock in particular.

Newby (1989) believes that the decline of the Addax in Niger over the last 50 years can be attributed essentially to three determinant factors: the direct taking (hunting and poaching), the drought, and the disturbance by tourism. According to his 1989 analysis, the influence of hunting and disturbance caused by tourism should be decreasing in Niger. As a result, even taking into account the fact that in certain areas and for certain types of habitat the recent periods of drought most certainly caused irreversible damage, Newby considered in 1989 that the conditions were likely more favorable to conservation and reintroduction projects than they had been in the preceding decade.

Such measures must be taken as quickly as possible, or according to the cases, pursued in:

Mauritania: study the possibility of implementing the proposal of a Tilemci reserve (Hamerlynck, in litt.) near Oualata and Tichitt, or another zone of protection in the Mreyyé. In addition, the control of hunting is crucial in Mauritania.

Mali: the putting into place of a zone of protection specifically for the Addax in the Majabat al Koubra must be considered as rapidly as possible. The Adrar des Iforas is equally a potentially important region. Field prospecting must be carried out in the area, giving way to concrete proposals.

Chad: the rehabilitation of the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Reserve is a national and international priority for the Addax’s survival. New evaluations of the state of conservation of the Addax populations must be done there. Additional prospecting should also be done in the northeast of Chad, in the depression of the Mourdi, and the Erdi, and in the northwest in the region of the Djourab near the border with Niger.

Niger: the Aïr-Ténéré National Nature Reserve, created in 1988 for the conservation of Sahelo-Saharan antelopes, has suffered these last years and human presence has never been sufficiently controlled there (Newby, 1988), but the size of the reserve (77,360 km²) and the Addax sanctuary that it encloses constitute an important advantage. A planned reserve in the Termit region offers an extraordinary possibility of local conservation of the Addax (Grettenberger and Newby, 1990), and it should be supported and put into place.

Sudan: systematic prospecting should be carried out in the northern Darfur, to permit an evaluation of the possibility of making a reserve. A proposal for creating a reserve exists in the Wadi Howar.


Reinforcement or reintroduction measures

Population reinforcement or reintroduction measures, certain ones based in fact on existing proposals, must also be taken, especially:

Tunisia: the program to reintroduce the Addax in Tunisia, which is an element of a very important and up until now very successful program, must be able to continue and be supported internationally. Reimplantation of Addaxes in more Saharan parts of Tunisia is foreseen, particularly in the Djebil National Park.

Morocco: a program is underway, which also must be supported. The prospects of reimplantation of the Addax in Morocco in the proposed National Park of Dakhla-Adrar Souttouf are very interesting.

Niger: a program to reinforce the Addax population in Aïr-Ténéré was studied in detail at the end of the 1980’s (Dixon, Knowles and Newby, 1989) and should be pursued and updated in the current environmental and socio-economic context.

Chad: evaluation of the necessity and feasibility of a population reinforcement program.

Algeria: the existence, in Algeria, of national parks of exceptional dimension, the Tassili des Ajjers National Park and the proposed Hoggar National Park, could be an important favorable element for the reimplantation of the Addax in Algeria.

Libya: one of the protected areas established could potentially be interesting for a future reimplantation of the Addax; it is the Zellaf Reserve, in the south of the Hamada el Homra.

2.2. Habitat.

The main range of distribution, Saharan, of the Addax, corresponds with the desert formations of White (1983) including the desert dunes of perennial vegetation of his unit 70, as well as the regs, hamadas, and wadis of his unit 71, but it extends equally to White’s unit 54 which covers the grassy and semi-shrubbed formations of the northern Sahel, which the Addax penetrates in search of pasture during periods of drought. The Addax is well known for its utilization of extremely desolate, inhospitable, and arid habitats (Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). It has anatomical, physiological, and behavioral characteristics which allow it to exploit habitats where life seems impossible (Lavauden, 1934; Bourgoin, 1955; Gillet, 1965; Newby, 1974). A specialist of sandy desert regions, the Addax is the characteristic host of Saharan dunes, adapted to very dispersed pasture grounds (Heim de Balsac, 1936; Malbrant, 1952; Gillet, 1969; Newby, 1984; Grettenberger and Newby, 1990; Dragesco Joffé, 1993).

Precise data on the habitat of the Addax nasomaculatus were gathered in Chad (Malbrant, 1952; Gillet, 1965, 1969; Newby, 1974; Dragesco Joffé, 1993), in Niger (Lhote, 1946; Grettenberger and Newby, 1989), and in Mauritania and Mali (Lamarche, 1980, 1987). The influence of the extreme reach of tropical summer rains and sporatically of the winter Saharan depressions of Mediterranean origin which touch the southern Sahara permit especially, in good years, certain Graminaceae that react to both currents to give green pasture all year round (Gilet, 1969). These Graminaceae, which are capable of becoming green with the passage of humid air linked to the reach of the tropical front, are precisely those which serve as basic food for the Addax. It particularly concerns Aristida pungens and Aristida plumosa, or even Had or Cornulaca monacantha, these species going up far towards the north (Gillet, 1965).

In the southern part of its range of distribution at least, in the dry season, the Addax go closer to places with human presence towards the south, and their distribution is then determined by the presence of wild pumpkins, Colocynthis vulgaris (Citrullus colocynthis), particularly characteristic of the sub-desert Sahelian steppes, which represent their principal water resource at this time of year (Newby, 1974; Dragesco Joffé, 1993). As soon as the first rains renew their Saharan pastures, the Addax quickly go up towards the security of their isolated grazing grounds. Newby (1974) shows that in Chad, the southern limit of the Addax during the rainy season corresponds approximately to the southern limit of Had, Cornulaca monacantha, a crassulaceae plant equally constituting a good water resource.

In the ephemeral pastures of the rainy season, the Addax eats Graminaceae such as Aristida pungens, Stipagrostis plumosa, Tribulus sp, Cyperus conglomeratus, young green leaves of Panicum turgidum, and a variety of leguminous plants of the type Tephrosia and Indigofera. During recent periods of drought, the Addax have survived by grazing mainly on the perennial Graminaceae Stipagrostis vulnerans which is usually only consumed in the dry season (Newby, 1974). Other plants utilized by the Addax in the dry season are the Euphorbiceae Schouwia thebaica, Aerva javanica and Chrozophora brocchiana (Newby, 1974), or Graminaceae like Aristida acutiflora (Dragesco Joffé, 1993).

The Addax can go without water for very long periods (Malbrant, 1952; Gillet, 1965, 1969; Newby, 1974; Dragesco Joffé, 1993), in Niger (Lhote, 1946; Grettenberger and Newby, 1989). Certain plants susceptible of capturing night humidity in their hairs, such as Tephrosia vicioides, or in their glands, are very sought after by the Addax (Gillet, 1965). It even seems that the Addax can make use of viscous liquids at high osmotic pressure secreted by several plant species that it consumes (Gillet, 1969).

One of the principal types of Saharan pasture is the "gizu" or "jizzu", without which the Addax could probably not survive (Newby, 1984). Gizu is the Arabic word to designate ephemeral pastures which are formed following occasional rains in the Sahara (Wilson, 1978; Newby, 1984). The coolness of winter nights and the capacities of the ground for good water retention permit the pastures to stay green until summer. The animals which eat gizu can stay almost indefinitely independent from waterholes (Newby, 1984). The main elements of gizun are Indigofera berhautina, I.hochstetteri, Neurada procumbens, Tribulus longipetallus, Fagonia bruguieri, Cyperus conglomeratus and Stipagrostis acutiflora (Newby, 1974, 1984; Wilson, 1978).

2.3. Evolution of populations.

Even though no estimation of the extent of the Addax populations in the 19^th century or before was attempted, in historical antiquity, the Addax seems to have been very widespread (Lavauden, 1926). Most authors agree in saying that long ago the species was common and locally abundant in the entirety of its range of distribution (Sclater Thomas, 1899-1900; Chudeau, 1920; Heim de Balsac, 1931; Harper, 1945; Lhote, 1946; Monod, 1958; Le Houérou and Gillet, 1986; Lamarche, 1987; Newby and Magin, 1989).

In 1966, the estimations of total numbers of Addax surviving in the wild were about 5000 individuals (Dolan, 1966). Around 1980-1981, Newby (1981) estimated that the whole of the numbers of the species had descended to less than 4000 individuals, and to less than 2000 individuals in 1986 (Newby, 1986). More recent Estimates suggest that the total population is less than 600 individuals, most living in Chad (around 200), in Niger (from 50 to 200), and in the Majabat al Koubra, at the northeast border of Mali and the eastern border of Mauritania (Dixon et al., 1991; East, 1990).

2.4. Migration.

The Addax is described by several authors as being in perpetual movement, like an indefatigable nomad which roams vast distances in search of pastures and which exploits environments where all life seems impossible, such as the ergs and the regs (Gillet, 1965, 1969; Lamarche, 1987; Dragesco Joffé, 1993). Because of the erratic character of Saharan rains, the Addax lives in regions where Graminaceae tufts are extremely dispersed, which obliges it to move great distances daily (Gillet, 1967; Newby, 1984). In addition to local movements which are made throughout the year, numerous authors have described the annual migratory movements, with penetration in the desert at the time of rains and the cool season, and going the opposite way towards the periphery of the desert in summer (Newby, 1984). These movements are closely linked to the search for shade, and also especially to the absolute necessity of consuming plants capable not only of meeting their needs for food but also for water (Newby, 1984); because of this the movements vary considerably from year to year, but are not entirely unpredictable (Newby, 1974).

The annual movements were described for Chad and Niger by Gillet (1965, 1969) and Newby (1974), for Mali and Mauritania by Monod (1952) and Lamarche (1980, 1987), and for Sudan by Wilson (1980). Gillet (1969) and Newby (1974) compare, in Chad, the seasonal migrations of the Oryx and the Addax, and note that these seasonal movements are of a lesser amplitude for the Addax than the Oryx (Newby, 1974) and stay almost always in a more northerly position (Gillet, 1969). At the end of the dry season, the Addax penetrates well into the sub-desert Sahelian steppes, between the 15^th and 17^th parallel, and certain very dry years goes down even to the 14^th parallel (Newby, 1974). In Chad, Gillet (1965) distinguishes between populations which make regular movements, populations which are relatively stable, and individuals either isolated or in small bands which make movements large in amplitude but which are erratic.

The cyclic, seasonal, or interannual migrations of the Addax have (or had) a cross-border character, at least between Mali and Mauritania, between Mauritania and the former Spanish Morocco, between Mali and Algeria, Niger and Algeria, Chad and Algeria, Niger and Chad, Chad and Sudan, between Soudan, Egypt, and Libya, between Algeria and Tunisia, and between Algeria and Libya (Lhote, 1946; Dupuy, 1967; Kowalski and Rzebik-Kowalska, 1991; Dragesco Joffé, 1993).

Morocco (including ex-Spanish Sahara): extinct

It is probably the populations linked to the big Mauritania-Mali ergs of the Majabat al Koubra and to the Iguidi and Chech ergs which occupied, with an unknown regularity, the Atlantic Sahara in the region of Dakhla (Morales Agacino, 1950; Valverde, 1957; Loggers et al., 1992) and gave way to observations east of Zagora in the region of the upper Drâa in Morocco (Marçais, 1937; Loggers et al., 1992). The few rare data around Saquiat el Hamra lead one to believe that it wasn’t a matter of permanent populations (Morales Agacino, 1950; Valverde, 1957; Loggers et al., 1992). The last herd was eliminated in 1942, and the last piece of data dates from 1963, concerning an isolated female individual.

Tunisia: reintroduced

The Addax was present in the Tunisian part of the Great Eastern Erg, where the last ones were hunted around 1900, between Bir-Aouïn and the El Jenaîen Erg (Kacem, 1994). Kacem (1994) situates the date of extinction around 1932. The species was successfully reintroduced in Tunisia in the Bou Hedma National Park in 1985 (Bousquet, 1992; Kacem, 1994). The translocation and reintroduction of the Addax in more Saharan environments, especially those of the Djebil National Park, is planned, and will be carried out once the reinforcement of the protection of Saharan parks is ensureded.

Algeria: probably extinct, or very occasional visitor

Until the middle of the 19^th century, the northern limit of the Addax’s range of distribution in Algeria reached the north of the Great Western Erg (Colomb, 1856 and Mares, 1857 in Kowalski and Kowalska, 1991), and the south of Ouargla and Touggourt (Aucapitaine, 1860 in Kowalski and Kowalska, 1991). In the beginning of the 20^th century, the northern limit of the Addax’s distribution was much more southerly, and at the same time, data on presence of the species appear in southern regions of Algeria which were until then inaccessible to prospectors. Grenot (1979) dates the extinction of the species in the northwest Sahara around 1905 with the disappearance of the last herd in the Er Raoui Erg. The Addax probably disappeared from the Great Eastern Erg in the beginning of the 20^th century (Kowalski and Kowalska, 1991). Lhote (1946) reported presence of the species in 1938-1939 in the Hamada de Tinrhert; he observed the species in the Ténéré Erg at the Niger-Algeria border, and traces of the Addax near the Malian border south of the Tanezrouft to the north of the Adrar des Iforas. The species was still present in the north of the Iguidi Erg until the 1930’s, but only survived beyond that on the Mauritanian side (Heim de Balsac, 1948). The presence of the Addax around the Hoggar massif, in the Tassili of the Hoggar, in the Tassili des Ajjers, the Ténéré Erg, and the Hamada de Tinrhert was signalled by several authors until the 1970’s and even the 1980’s (Lhote, 1946; Regnier, 1960; Dupuy, 1966, 1967b; De Smet, 1988). The Addax is probably currently still a very occasional visitor, penetrating through to Algeria along the southern border with Mauritania, Mali, Niger, and perhaps even Libya.

Libya: probably extinct

In Libya, the data, relatively little in number and dispersed, suggest a possible former presence in the Haruj al Aswald piedmont on the slope, in the region of Koufra, and in the vicinity of the Calanshio dunes (Hufnagl, 1972). Hufnagl (1972) thought that it had become very rare, and even extremely rare in the Hamada el Homra where the specimens in the Tripoli museum had been captured in 1938. In the 1970’s, Hufnagl noted this again in the northeast and southeast towards the Egyptian border (Kufra Oasis) as well as in the center of the Haruj el Aswad. Osborn and Krombein (1969) signalled the probable periodic presence in the region of the Jebel Uweinat of the Addax migrating from the south, where Misonne considered it extinct in 1977. Some individuals were pursued by hunters in 1975 in the Edyin de Murzuk (Gillet, 1971).

Egypt : extinct

Kock (1970) and Osborn and Helmy (1980) resumed observations of the Addax in Egypt: multiple observations were done until the 1870’s. They were carried out in the Western Desert of middle Egypt, where the Addax was known at big oases and depressions or in their peripheries, in particular at Siwa in the northwest, as well as at the Libyan oasis adjacent to Jaghbub, the depression of Qattara, of Faiyum, of Bahariya, of Farafara, of Dakhla, and at the Kharga complex (Osborne and Helmi, 1980). It was noted also in the extreme northeast of the Mediterranean coastal desert, in the Nubian desert southwest of Bir Kiseiba, and in the region of Jebel Uweinat. This concentrated distribution is characteristic of most mammals in the western desert (Osborn and Helmi, 1980) and most likely reflects the reality of the distribution in this desert empty of vegetation (Osborn and Helmi, 1980). The last data refer to animals killed in 1900, 65 km west of Alexandria (Flower, 1932), and in 1931, in Scheb (Osborn and Helmi, 1980).

Mauritania: endangered

The east of Mauritania is part of the range of distribution of Addax populations which were linked to the big Mauritania-Mali ergs of the Majabat al Koubra and to the Iguidi and Chech ergs (Monod, 1958; Gillet, 1969; Trotignon, 1975; Walter and Breckle, 1986; Lamarche, 1987). The southern limit of this part of the Addax’s range of distribution descends to the southeast of Mauritania between the 17^th and 19^th parallel. The Addax was still largely distributed in Mauritanian desert zones until the 1940’s, but the Mauritanian range of distribution has quite narrowed since then (Sournia and Verschuren, 1990). It probably survived until recently in several parts of the eastern deserts, especially the Dahr Tichit (Trotignon, 1975). Since 1980, the Addax has only survived in the region of the Mreyyé in the eastern part of the Majabat al Koubra (Lamarche, 1987); this population is that which is found also in western Mali, and which makes seasonal movements, of cross-border character, of several hundred kilometers (Lamarche, 1987).

This moving population of many hundreds of individuals is certainly the biggest reservoir of Addax at the current time (Lamarche, 1987). It is threatened by the practices of uncontrolled motorized hunting (Sournia and Verschuren, 1990).

Mali: endangered

The west of Mali is also part of the range of distribution of Addax populations which were linked to the big Mauritania-Mali ergs of the Majabat al Koubra and to the Iguidi and Chech ergs (Monod, 1958; Gillet, 1969; Trotignon, 1975; Sayer, 1977; Walter and Breckle, 1986; Lamarche, 1987). The Addax is still present along the Mauritania-Mali border (Sayer, 1977; Lamarche, 1987); it’s the same population of several hundred individuals which is found in the east of Mauritania and which makes seasonal movements of many hundreds of kilometers, movements which draw it in the cold season to Mauritania in the region of the Mreyyé (Lamarche, 1987). The southern limit of this part of the range of distribution of the Addax descends to the center of Mali between the 17^th and 19^th parallel. This moving population of many hundreds of individuals is certainly the largest reservoir of Addax today (Lamarche, 1987). It is menaced by the practices of uncontrolled motorized hunting (Heringa, 1990; Sournia and Verschuren, 1990). The Addax is currently not found in any protected area in Mali (Heringa, 1990).

In the transition zone between the desert and the Sahelian steppes, regions of significant presence of the Addax existed at least in the periphery of the Adrar des Iforas (Lhote, 1946). Lhote (1946) observed traces of the Addax near the Algeria-Mali border south of the Tanezrouft and to the north of the Adrar des Iforas. It is possible that the species survives there still, in very small numbers (Heringa, 1990).

Niger: endangered

Long ago, the Addax was widely distributed in the desert zone of Niger, but it was eliminated from the biggest part of its former range of distribution in Niger (Grettenberger and Newby, 1990). In the transition zone between the desert and the Sahelian steppes, large populations of Addax existed at least in the Ténéré, the piedmont of the Aïr, and the Termit massif (Lhote, 1946; Brouin, 1950; Grettenberger and Newby, 1990; Millington et al., 1991). It is currently still present in dune zones sheltered from motorized hunts, especially in the east and northeast of the region of Termit, the Ténéré desert, and in the northwest near the Algerian border (Grettenberger and Newby, 1990). The northern limit is situated around the 16^th parallel. In 1990, Grettenberger and Newby estimated the population in Niger to be less than 200 individuals, of which about fifty were in the western part of the Ténéré desert inside the Aïr-Ténéré National Nature Reserve. Grettenberger and Newby (1990) also believe that the population density of the Addax around the Termit massif is probably superior to that of the Aïr-Ténéré Reserve.

Chad : endangered

Long ago, the Addax was widely distributed in the sandy zones of the desert and semi-desert steppes north of the 15^th parallel. It could even be locally abundant north of the Erguei and the Bodélé (Kanem), east of the Mourdi depression and more east in the Ennedi, south of the Tibesti (Gillet, 1969; Newby, 1974), and in the Sudan-Chad regions of the Mourdi and Wadi Howar (Sudan) depressions (Malbrant, 1952; Gillet, 1969; Kock, 1970; Wilson, 1980).

Chad was, for several decades, the Addax’s most important stronghold, even as the species was disappearing under hunting pressure practically everywhere else (Thomassey and Newby, 1990). In the beginning of the 1970’s, there were still without a doubt several thousand Addax in Chad (Thomassey and Newby, 1990), but the situation has strongly degraded since then, under the combined effects of hunting, years of drought, competition with domestic livestock, and military activities in the north of the country (Thomassey and Newby, 1990). In the 1970’s, there were still a substantial number of Addax (around 800 individuals) in the north of the region of the Oued Achim-Oued Rimé, and these Addax went up towards the north in the direction of the Tibesti during the rainy season (Thomassey and Newby, 1990). Military events occurring in 1978 compromised protection efforts achieved, and pushed the Addax farther and farther towards even more marginal regions as far as their capacity to permit survival of the species than those where the species was established (Newby, 1974). There are currently probably less than 200 individuals left in the desert zones which are remote and accessible only with difficulty between the 15^th and 17^th parallel (Thomassey and Newby, 1990). Recent prospecting consisting of aerial flights and observations on the ground carried out by Pfeffer in 1990 and 1991 and on the ground again by Tubiana in 1995 enabled the gathering of evidence about small groups of Addax on the Oued Achim, in the Mourdi depression especially in its eastern part, on the Oued Chili, between Kalaït and Fada and in the east of the Ennedi between Bao Bilia and the Sudanese border (Pfeffer, 1995).

Sudan: probably extinct, or very occasional visitor

In the past, the Addax was widely distributed in the zones of desert and semi-desert steppes of northern Sudan, in the Nubian desert of the North Province, and north of the Kordofan in the northern Darfur (Audas, 1951; Kock, 1970; Wilson, 1980; Hillman and Fryxell, 1988). It was widespread and even locally abundant until the 1930’s-1940’s (Brockelhurst, 1931; Shaw, 1936). But by the end of the 1930’s, the numbers had diminished considerably in the Kordofan (Audas, 1951) and elsewhere in the 1940’s. From the 1950’s onwards, data become rare (Wilson, 1980). No sign of presence of the Addax could be recorded during aerial prospecting conducted in the 1970’s in northern Sudan (Lamprey, 1975; Wilson, 1980), but the species survived in small numbers in the Darfur until the end of the 1970’s (Hashim, in litt. Nov. 1996).

The decline of the species cannot be attribued to a single and unique cause, but rather to a group of factors which played a role simultaneously and concurrently and were mutually reinforcing, specifically, hunting associated with bad land management, drought and the desertification it leads to, and disturbance and insufficient protection (Newby, 1988).

4.1. Degradation and regression of habitats.

Recent periods of great drought, in the 1960’s-1970’s and the 1980’s, induced a catastrophic growing desertification over the whole of the desert and sub-desert zones of North Africa. Their effects on Addax populations have been disastrous: diminishing of winter pasture, growing scarcity of pasture lands in the dry season, loss of shade, and general disappearance of vital organic water resources (Newby, 1988). Previously, in comparable periods of drought, the Addax most likely occupied the north-Sahelian zone of steppes more (White, 1983, unit 54a). Yet the Sahelian steppes were subjected to a growing pressure for pasture by the livestock of nomad populations fleeing the drought. Livestock in the Sahelian zone is now in direct competition with the large natural fauna of the region. And the Addax populations, searching for pastures, forced to go closer to zones of human activities, have been more exposed to direct exploitation.

4.2. Direct exploitation.

Traditional methods of hunting, such as those practiced until the 1960’s (hunting with nets), and currently still the hunting with spears with the help of dogs, horses, and dromedaries, even though resulting locally or periodically in large takings, could not have a significant impact on the numbers of Addax (Brouin, 1950; Gillet, 1965, 1969; Newby and Grettenberger, 1986; Newby, 1988; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). For the last 30 or 40 years, excessive hunting with modern arms has reduced the populations to such a degree that traditional hunting can practically no longer be done (Newby and Grettenberger, 1986).

Man is incontestably the capital instrument of the decline of the species, mainly as of the end of the 1940’s, with the advent of the deadly combination of firearms and all-terrain vehicles (Gillet, 1965, 1969; Newby, 1986, 1988; Dragesco-Joffé, 1993). These authors clearly show that hunting, carried out in an irresponsible way by mining, military, and administrative personnel, is the principal cause of the staggering decline of the Addax.

4.3. Other threats.

Equally, tourism is and has been a threat to the Addax, particularly in Niger where Newby (1989) notes tourists chasing Addax with all-terrain vehicles. Chased and harrassed in this manner, the Addax starts galloping and can die within ten minutes (Newby, ).

All of the indirect human pressures susceptible of affecting the species, such as the multiplication of wells, the extension of domestic livestock, and the invasion of available habitats, have an effect through the degradation or the regression of habitats and the rise in susceptibility to takings and harassment. They have been treated in preceding points.

5.1. International.

Bonn Convention: Annex I, resolution 3, 2, 4.

Washington Convention (CITES): Appendix I

5.2. National.

6.1. Ban on takings.

6.2. Habitat conservation.

The proposed parks of the Drâa basin and Dakhla-Adrar Souttouf (Müller, 1966) seem suitable for reintroducing the species. The few existing data for these zones suggest that they didn’t support permanent populations of Addax. The current practical impossibility of ensuring security of movement towards other regions will perhaps necessitate active management of the habitat.

The Addax has been extinct in Tunisia since the 1930’s. In 1980, the Tunisian Government established the Bou Hedma National Park, 16,488 hectares of steppes and Acacia raddiana woodlands, of which 4500 hectares are managed under a system of integral protection. The Bou Hedma Park, in which a program of habitat restoration was led with much success (Bertram, 1988; Bousquet, 1992; Kacem, 1994), represents an optimal site for reintroduction of the Oryx dammah (which was also reintroduced there). It represents more for the Addax a center for reproduction and acclimatization allowing its restoration in zones which will most likely suit it perfectly, that is to say Saharan parks such as the Djebil Park, when the planned reinforcement of Saharan parks is ensured. Management of the habitat should perhaps be considered.

The Tassili des Ajjers National Park and the proposed Hoggar National Park offer, because of their exceptional size and environmental diversity (Bousquet, 1992), certain possibilities for reintroduction. The rarity of observations in these regions for the last few decades doesn’t allow exclusion of the necessity of habitat management.

The moving population of several hundred individuals which still subsists in the Malian west, at the Mauritania-Mali border, is probably the largest reservoir of Addax today (Lamarche, 1987). It is threatened by practices of uncontrolled motorized hunting (Heringa, 1990; Sournia and Verschuren, 1990). Currently the Addax is not found in any protected area in Mali (Heringa, 1990). Local energetic protection efforts for this last big Addax population are essential to the continuance of the species.

Since 1980, the Addax has only survived in Mauritania in the Mreyyé region in the eastern part of the Majabat al Koubra (Lamarche, 1987); this population is the one that is also found in the west of Mali, and which does seasonal cross-border migrations between Mali and Mauritania, of several hundred kilometers (Lamarche, 1987). This moving population of many hundreds of individuals is most likely the biggest reservoir of Addax today (Lamarche, 1987). The hunting practices in Mauritania expose this population to considerable risks (Lamarche, 1987; Sournia and Verschuren, 1990): strict protection measures must be taken to prevent irresponsible motorized hunting in the Mreyyé (Lamarche, 1987). The Addax is currently found in no protected area in Mauritania. Local energetic protection efforts for this last sizeable population of Addax are essential to the persistence of the species. Special efforts must imperatively be made to control hunting.

Within the perimeter of the Aïr-Ténéré National Reserve, a sanctuary was created specifically for the preservation of the Addax. A residual population of Addax uses the sanctuary, the Aïr Reserve, and its surroundings. A possibility of population reinforcement has been proposed several times since 1989 (Grettenberger and Newby, 1989, 1990). It should be taken up again in the light of the current environmental and social context, after a new evaluation of the chances of survival of the species in the wild and thus preservation of original behavior. A planned reserve in the Termit region offers a second possibility of local conservation (Grettenberger and Newby, 1990), and also of reinforcement if necessary.

The Rimé-Ouadi Achim Reserve is an essential site for the persistence of the Addax (Grettenberger and Newby, 1990; Pfeffer, 1993a, 1995). Addax have even been sighted recently in the north of the Reserve. Rehabilitation of the Reserve, ill-treated since the military conflicts, is a prerequisite for any action (Grettenberger and Newby, 1990). The implementation of strict protection measures for the habitat and the animals is indispensable.

The proposal to create a Wadi Howar National Park in the northern Darfour would offer possibilities of restoring populations of Addax or reintroducing them if it became necessary and feasible. The degraded state of the steppic areas in Sudan suggest that substantial habitat restoration measures would probably be a necessary prerequisite. The control over takings from large protected areas also risks being difficult there (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1992).

6.3. Attenuation of obstacles for migratory animals.

Given the actual state of the populations, the question has no point. In case of recuperation, or progressively as reintroduction projects succeed, it gradually could be asked more and more. In the short and medium term, only the creation of protected areas which are sufficiently vast to include the entire necessary range, and in particular, cross-border reserves, seems to be an adequate answer. It seems in fact improbable that the security of movement between protected areas can be ensured in a realistic manner in the foreseeable future.

6.4. Regulations concerning other detrimental factors.

6.5. Other measures.

Outside range of distribution:

The species is raised in captivity or semi-captivity in various countries, in North Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and North America.

7.1. Public authorities.

New prospecting efforts must be made to enable an evaluation of the residual populations of Addax, essentially in Chad and Niger (Newby, 1989).

Research and experiments must be done rapidly in the domain of rational use of the Addax insofar as an exceptional resource capable of utilizing extreme environments.

7.2. N.G.O.s

Recommended measures are the object of an Action Plan developed in parallel with this status report (Beudels et al., 1998). The principal needs that they meet are listed above.

8.1. Total protection of the species.

Necessary in all the countries of the historical range in such a way as to prepare for a possible redeployment of the species.

8.2. Conservation measures.

Establishment of a network of protected areas in all parts of the historical range of distribution, based on the guidelines stated in point 2.1.4., with absolute priority given to zones where the species could be surviving in the wild: specifically, first of all, in the Majabat al Koubra in Mauritania and in Mali, the rehabilitation of the Ouadi Rimé-Ouadi Achim Reserve in Chad, and the reinforcement of the Aïr-Ténéré Reserve in Niger.

8.3. Localization and monitoring of residual populations, and precision of their ecological requirements:

Niger: urgent need for new prospecting to enable an evaluation of the residual populations of Addax, especially around the Termit massif.

Chad: urgent need for new prospecting to enable an evaluation of the residual populations of Addax.

8.4. Reinforcement of populations and reintroduction into the potential range.

Support for the Tunisian program of reintroduction.
Support for the Moroccan program of reintroduction.
Preparation of programs in other regions of the historical range, according to the guidelines stated in point 2.1.4.
New evaluation of the possibilities of reinforcing the populations in Niger and Chad.
Study the possibilities of reviving the project of establishing a center of reproduction in captivity on the former ranch of Erkafane, as proposed in 1989-1991.

In the recent past, large mammals were important as a source of protein and for their exchange value in all the desert and semi-desert zones of North Africa, and represented an important resource in particular for the peoples of the desert. For about the last sixty years, these large mammals have become rarer and rarer, but the number of head of livestock, in Niger for the Tuaregs for example, has increased significantly in certain periods (Newby and Grettenberger, 1986). During periods of drought, this livestock diminished considerably. If the large mammals of the desert could be reintroduced or their numbers reinforced until they reach sufficient population levels, and if they could be managed as a natural resource, these species adapted to survival in extreme conditions could turn out to be of inestimable value for the sustainable development of these regions. Research and experiments should be undertaken in this direction without delay.

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